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A TEXT BOOK 



OF 



AMERICAN HISTOEY 



BY 

WILLIAM ESTABROOK CHANCELLOR 

SrPKRISTEXDEXT OF SCHOOLS, BLOOMFIELD, X. J. 
FORMERLY, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, ERASMUS HALL HIGH SCHOOL, 
BROOKLYN, NEW YORK, N. Y.; LECTURER UPON HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY, 
SCHOOL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, BROOKLYN INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND 
SCIENCES, BROOKLYN: ETC. MEMBER, AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIA- 
TION; AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE: ETC. 
AUTHOR OF "SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION." "ESSAYS IN NINE- 
TEENTH CENTURY HISTORY," AND YARIOUS TEXT BOOKS. 



" The preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the 
destiny of the republican model of government are justly 
considered as deeply, perhaps as finally, staked on the 
experiment intrusted to the hands of the American people.'''' 
George Washington, 
first inaugural address, april 30, 1789. 



THE MOESE COMPANY 
NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO 



Tw© Cspies Received 



FEB 19 1904 

.. Copyright Entry 
CLAS§ cc XXc. No. 
J COPY S 



LINCOLN'S AMERICANISM. 



"... In the great journal of things happening under the sun, we, the 
American people, find . . . ourselves in the peaceful possession of the fair- 
est portion of the earth, as regards extent of territory, fertility of soil, and 
salubrity of climate. We find ourselves under the government of a system 
of political institutions conducing more essentially to . . ., civil and re- 
ligious liberty than any other of which . . . history tells us. ..*.'. If ever 
danger reaches us, it must spring up among us'. It cannot come from 
abroad. ... As a nation of free men, we must live through all time, or 
die by suicide. . . . Let every American, every lover of liberty, every 
well-wisher to posterity, pledge . . . his life, his property, and his sacred 
honor ... to the support of the Constitution and of the Laws. . . . Let 
every man remember that to violate the Laws is to trample on the blood of 
. . . the Revolution and to tear the charters of his own and his children's 
liberty. . . . Let reverence for the Laws be taught in schools and in col- 
leges. . . . Let it be preached from the pulpits, proclaimed in legislative 
halls, and enforced in courts of justice. Let it become the political religion 
of the nation. . . . 

" Our fathers and forefathers were iron men who fought for principle. 
. . . Among us perhaps half our people are not descendants of the men 
... of the Revolution : they have come from Europe themselves, or their 
ancestors, since 1776, to find themselves our equals. . . . They cannot 
trace their connection by blood with those glorious men and make them- 
selves feel that they are part of us. But when they look through that old 
Declaration of Independence, they find those old men saying, ' We hold 
these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,' and 
they feel that the moral sentiment then taught, evidences their relation to 
those men, that it is the source of all moral principle in them, and that 
they have a right to claim it as though they were blood of the blood and 
flesh of the flesh of the men who wrote that Declaration ; and so they are. 
That is the electric cord in the Declaration that links the hearts of patriotic 
and liberty -loving men together ; that will link those patriotic hearts as 
long aS the love of freedom exists in the minds of men throughout the 
world. . . . That sentiment gave liberty to this country, and hope to all 
maukind for all future time. ... It promised that in due time the weight 
should be lifted from the shoulders of all men, and that all men should 
have an equal chance. ... So I say let the principle . . . that all men 
are created equal ... be reached as nearly as possible, for it is the 
standard of the highest moral perfection. ' Be ye therefore perfect, even 
as your Father in .tjeav.en is, perie£Ui!' 

- - 7r(w. the. Sketches :of AbruTiain Lincoln. 



COPYI'IUHT, 1903, BY 
WI^IiIAi\i ESTABIiOOK CHANCELLOR. 



PKEFACE. 



From the point of view of the American citizen in the first 
decade of the twentieth century, our history as a nation pre- 
sents a wider range than in any early epoch. In this wider 
range of our interests there is a distinctively new feature : we 
now meet upon our horizons in business and in politics, the 
other nations of the world as the greatest of them all. We are 
the first democratic empire in universal history. From this 
new point of view the events of American history take on new 
meanings. Changes in relations and proportions necessitate 
the re-writing of history. 

History is a record of events that has affected the social 
welfare. The record of an event is incomplete without an ex- 
planation of its causes and effects. Interpretation is an essen- 
tial part of history. The statement of a fact is not history, but 
journalism. Generalizing upon facts not themselves recited is 
philosophy. But history is neither journalism nor philosophy. 
Xor is it a sum of biographies. A biographical event affects 
the man's welfare. Because it is of human interest, it is not 
therefore necessarily of historical importance. 

An epitome of facts, a philosophy of events, or a body of 
biographical details is not a history, or a school history, how- 
ever it may be entitled. History deals with events of general 
human interest, tracing them in their sequence and order, show- 
ing their causes and effects. History is essentially a method 
of revealing the past by finding its truth and explaining it. 

The boy or girl who in grammar or high school or academy 
reads and studies a text-book of American history spends a year, 
or two or three years, upon the book that the teacher often 

3 



PKEFACE. 



reads through in a single day. This long use of the book, this 
slow progress through the subject, imposes certain conditions 
that I as a teacher of many classes of students have endeavored 
to meet. Whatever may be the opinions of others competent or 
incompetent to judge as to the qualities of this text-book, there 
is nothing in these pages that has not been placed here deliber- 
ately. I have meant to develop and to preserve in the students 
the historical perspective, the faith in the progress of Ameri- 
canism to the ultimate realization of the finest principles of our 
human nature, and to awake in them the desire for the truth 
that makes men free. 

A great deal of human history is too hard for even the 
wisest to understand. A great deal more will never be known, 
for knowledge of the facts disappeared with the doers of the 
deeds. History is essentially a difficult study, for it presents 
the relations of geography, chronology, and psychology, involv- 
ing in all its events space, time, and cause. Most of its 
causes lie in the facts and principles of human nature, of 
which the young have little knowledge and the ignorant little 
understanding. 

The outlines of this text were begun more than a dozen years 
ago. The entire text was written several times upon the basis 
of source materials and the standard historians ; and then read in 
connection with several well-known school texts to see that no 
essentials were omitted. I have suppressed details and empha- 
sized what seemed the important affairs. Where the record 
here differs from the records in other texts, the difference is in- 
tentional and is based upon authority. 

The plan of this history was submitted before completion of 
the text to a score of leading educators : among them, Charles 
F. Thwing, D.D., LL.D., President of Western Reserve Uni- 
versity ; Albert Leonard, Ph. D., Editor of The Journal of Peda- 
gogy ; James M. Greenwood, Ph.D., Superintendent of Schools, 
Kansas City ; Walter B. Gunnison, Ph.D., Principal Erasmus 



PREFACE. 



Hall High School, Brooklyn, New York ; and Wm. H. Mace, 
Ph.D., Professor of History, Syracuse University. As now 
developed in the text, the plan represents fairly a composite of 
the views of many men of the highest professional standing. 

The manuscript and proofs have been read critically by Mr. 
Eobert Comin, Instructor of History, Eastern District High 
School, Brooklyn, New York. The account of the War of 
Secession was read in manuscript and in type by a distinguished 
General in the Army of the United States. The entire plan 
and the manuscript were reviewed by Mr. Eugene E. Beecher, 
of the Tennessee Coal, Iron & Eailroad Company, Birmingham, 
Alabama, a business man who has found time to preserve in 
his own scholarship and literary skill the traditions of his 
family. 

To Mr. Fletcher W. Hewes, author of the Statistical Atlas of 
the Census of 1880, a monumental work, and to Miss L. Pearl 
Hewes, instructor in the Montclair Eree Common Schools, I 
am indebted for the selection of most of the illustrations in the 
text. 

To all of these friendly critics and to others not mentioned 
here, I desire to extend my thanks. 

I shall receive with gratitude any corrections of errors, 
typographical or other, that may remain in the text of this, the 
first edition. 

Bloomfield, N. J., December 1, 1903. W. E. C. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



1. This book is an outline of American history from 1492 to 1903. 
At points of especial interest, do not hesitate to bring other material 
to the class, for outside reading and study will greatly expand the 
student's knowledge, and widen his interest. 

2. Pictures, such as are found in various histories and in current 
magazine articles, are of great value in developing the historical 
imagination. A portfolio of pictures, even though some are the crude 
illustrations of newspapers, will be examined day after day and month 
after month by the students with great pleasure and profit. 

3. The relation of histor3 r to geography is so immediate and so 
vital, that constant reference of events to the places in which they 
occurred help the child's knowledge, not only in history, but also in 
geography. Innumerable repetitions are necessary in order to locate 
permanently in the mind the maps of various regions. Such map- 
knowledge is extremely valuable, though the majority of people are 
still deficient in their knowledge of geography, and journey through 
life without knowing whether Chicago is north, northeast, or north- 
west of St. Louis, and whether Cincinnati is or is not on a direct line 
between Philadelphia and St. Louis. Nothing, perhaps, more greatly 
assists the pupil to a discriminating knowledge of the difference 
between colonial and modern times, than an explanation upon the 
map of the fact that rapid stage-coaching between Boston and Phila- 
delphia two hundred years ago involved two weeks 1 travel, while 
now the two cities are but one-third of a day apart by the rapid 
express trains. 

4. This book is designed either for reading, or for exposition by 
the teacher with discussion by the class, or for text-book study, or 
as a basis for wider examination and discussion of its various topics. 
It may be used by the same class for several years. 

5. The ever-recurring question of dates may be answered by say- 
ing that there are two uses for dates. One use is to show the relative 

6 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



times of events ; the other use is for the permanent equipment of the 
mind. While the pages of a History require a considerable number 
of dates in order to show the sequence in which events occurred, no 
one needs to know permanently more than a dozen, or at most a 
score of dates in American chronology. From these, all other im- 
portant dates can be easily estimated with sufficient accuracy. On 
pages 9-11 will be found lists of dates of primary importance. 

6. The questions at the end of each chapter have been placed 
there for the purpose of assisting the children to review by them- 
selves, or with others, the facts of the lessons that have been studied. 
Questions such as these show a child what the author of the book 
regards as the principal things to be learned from the pages. Teach- 
ers will necessarily ask many mor^ questions thau are given here. 

7. I have introduced certain lists of books suitable for reading by 
the pupils, and lists suitable for reading by teachers. I have pre- 
sented also a bibliography, pages 633 el seq., of such books as a 
school library may reasonably be expected to have. 

8. The length of the lessons to be assigned daily must depend 
upon so many different elements in different schools as greatly to vary. 
Reviews are of extreme importance in history. Every day should 
include a review, as well as an advance. There should also be days 
wholly given up to reviews, and these should come frequently. We 
who are grown up never tire of reviews when we make them for our- 
selves, because we introduce with the old material some that is new, 
making the whole body of knowledge vital and interesting. At the 
time of the review, simple analyses, such as have been introduced 
upon some of these pages, may be placed upon the blackboard. 

9. The topical recitation by the pupil standing at his desk is a 
very good method of interesting the individuals and the class in 
history, and consequently should be introduced frequently to vary 
the brisk question-and-answer recitation in which all members of 
the class are involved. In my own experience, which has included the 
teaching of many classes in history, I have found that the most suc- 
cessful device is that of sending a few pupils to the blackboard, 
each to write a few sentences on different topics. These senten- 
ces are then discussed by the class. As this exercise correlates 
with instruction in English language and grammar, it becomes an 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



extremely valuable one in the child's education. Further, it requires 
the child to express history through written language, thus employ- 
ing eye and hand ; and when the sentences are read, the ear also is 
trained. 

10. Students often find interesting newspaper accounts both of 
recent events, and of history long past. While the reading of such 
accounts must not be allowed to interfere with the progress of the 
class in s} T stematic and progressive study, yet due attention to this 
current literature helps to develop an enthusiasm in historical study 
that is the certain guarantee of the student's improvement in knowl- 
edge and understanding. 

11. The preparation of compositions and essays upon history 
gives opportunity to the pupils to make booklets and pamphlets illus- 
trated by their own work with pen, pencil, or brush, and by pictures 
from magazines. Such compositions are always interesting additions 
to the annual school exhibit, and are highly prized by the pupils 
themselves. 

12. An extra-illustrated American history book may be made by 
taking two copies of this or another text and tearing them apart, to 
use the pages in as large a scrap-book as may seem advisable. 
Upon the large pages may then be pasted, or otherwise fastened, 
additional illustrations from books, or the student's own work, and 
also clippings or copies of passages from various other books, or 
from magazines, or from the student's own essays. Such an enlarged 
American history made each year by the class represents the student's 
own interests. A shelf full of such histories is a valuable record of 
a school's teaching through a period of years. 

13. A visit to museums and libraries with historical collections 
stimulates interest. Often visits to scenes where famous events have 
taken place are also helpful. Historical fiction, when read critically, 
is not objectionable, since it quickens the imagination. A few good 
books are suggested in Appendix VII. 

14. Everyone nowadays knows the helpfulness of the modern libra- 
rian of the public library. It is not perhaps quite as well known 
that the public librarian of a neighboring town or city is always ready 
to advise and to assist, and usually to lend books to the teacher of the 
village or country school. 



AMERICAN CHRONOLOGY. 



LOOKING BACKWARD FROM NOW. 
Twelve Landmarks. 

1898. The War with Spain. 

1861-5. The Civil War. 

1846-8. The Mexican War. 

1812-5. Second War with Great Britain. 

1803. The Louisiana Purchase. 

1787. Adoption of the Constitution and Northwest Ordinance. 

1775-83. War of Independence. 

1733. Georgia, the last of the " Original States," is founded. 

1607. Virginia, the first of the " Original States,' 1 is founded. 

1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi River. 

1497. Cabot discovers the Continent of North America. 

1492. Columbus discovers the " New AVorld" (San Salvador) . 

The original date of American history is at the bottom. 



Accessions of Territory. 

Square Miles. 



1898. Porto Rico } . , , ( 4,000 

> by war and purchase . . . < 

Philippine Islands S ( 114,000 

1898. The Hawaiian Islands by annexation 7,000 

1867. Alaska Purchase 577,000 

1853. Gadsden Purchase 46,000 

1848. Mexican Cession by war and purchase .... 523,000 
1846. (Oregon Boundary settled.) 

1845. Texas by annexation 371,000 

1819. Florida Purchase ; . 59,000 

1803. Louisiana Purchase 1,033,000 

1783. British Recognition of American Independence. 

9 



10 DATES. 



Great Expositions. 

1904. Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis. 

1902. Inter-State and West Indian at Charleston. 

1901. Pan-American at Buffalo. 

1898. Trans-Mississippi at Omaha. 

1895. Southern Exposition at Atlanta. 

1893. Columbian at Chicago. 

1876. Centennial at Philadelphia. 

1853. World's Fair at New York. 

LOOKING FORWAED FEOM 1000 A. D. 
Critical Dates. 

1000 (?) The Northmen visit our coasts. 

1492. Columbus discovers San Salvador, Oct. 12. 

1497. The Cabots discover North America. 

1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 

1522. Del Cano in Magellan's ship completes the first voyage 

around the world. 
1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi River. 
1565. The Spanish settle St. Augustine, Florida. 
1598. The Spanish found Santa Fe, New Mexico. 
1605. The French establish Port Royal (Annapolis) in Acadia. 

1607. The English settle in Jamestown, Virginia. 

1608. The French found Quebec. 

1613. The Dutch found a trading-post on Manhattan Island (New 

York). 
1620. The English (Pilgrims) settle at Plymouth, Massachusetts. 
1634. The English settle in Maryland. 
1638. The Swedes settle on the Delaware River. 

1664. The English take New Amsterdam and call it New York. 

1665. The English settle in New Jersey. 
1670. The English settle in South Carolina. 
1682. The English found Philadelphia. 
1689-97. King William's War. 

1702-13. Queen Anne's War. 

1718. The French found New Orleans. 



DATES. 11 



1732. The English establish Georgia. 

1744-8. King George's War. 

1748. A company is formed to make settlements on the Ohio River. 

1754-63. French and Indian AVar. 

1770. Boston Massacre. 

1775-83. War of Independence. 

1776. Declaration of Independence. 

1778. French Alliance. 

1787. The Constitution of the United States is adopted. 

1789. Northwest Ordinance. 

1789. George Washington becomes the first President. 

1803. Napoleon Bonaparte sells the Louisiana Territory to us. 

1807. Robert Fulton invents the steamboat. 

1812-5. Second War with Great Britain. 

1820. The Missouri Compromise becomes law. 

1823. The Monroe Doctrine is published. 

1828. The steam railroad is begun. 

1832. Jackson replies to the Nullification Ordinance of South 
Carolina. 

1844. Samuel F. B. Morse sends the first telegram. 

1845. Texas is annexed. 
1846-8. The Mexican War. 

1846-57. The development of practical sewing-machines takes place. 

1850. The Fugitive Slave Law is passed by Congress. 

1854. " Uncle Tom's Cabin " is published. 

1861-5. The Civil War. 

1863. Lincoln puts into effect the Emancipation Proclamation. 

1866. The first successful Atlantic Cable is laid. 

1876. A. G. Bell invents the first successful telephone. 

1879. Specie payment is resumed. 

1883. First Civil Service Act is passed by Congress. 

1898. War with Spain. 

1898. The Hawaiian Islands are annexed. 

1902. The President's Commission settles the coal-mine contro- 

versy between " Capital and Labor. 1 ' 

1903. The Alaska Boundary is settled by arbitration. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Preface 3-5 

Suggestions to Teachers 6-8 

Important Dates 9-11 

List of Maps and Chief Illustrations 14 

Outline of the Story 15-19 

Historical and Geographical Relations 20-24 

PART ONE. 

Discovery and Settlement, 1492-1732. 

CHAPTER ONE, The Early Sea-Voyages ....... 25 

CHAPTER TWO, The Early Explorations 47 

CHAPTER THREE, The Unsuccessful Colonies 59 

CHAPTER EOUR, Later Voyages and Explorations .... 67 

CHAPTER EIVE, The English in Virginia 80 

CHAPTER SIX, The English in New England 91 

CHAPTER SEVEN, The Dutch and the Swedes Ill 

CHAPTER EIGHT, The English in the Later Colonies . . 118 

PART TWO. 

Progress of the Colonies, 1620-1775. 

CHAPTER ONE, The Indians and the Early Settlers ... 129 

CHAPTER TWO, Indian Wars 140 

CHAPTER THREE, Early Colonial Life 145 

CHAPTER EOUR, Colonial Life before Colonial Union . . 150 

CHAPTER EIVE, The Colonies and the European Wars . . 165 

CHAPTER SIX, Development of American Ideas 185 

CHAPTER SEVEN, Colonial Union 194 



PART THREE. 
Building the Nation, 1775-1789. 
CHAPTER ONE, Developing the Idea of a Nation 
CHAPTER TWO, The War of Independence . . 
CHAPTER THREE, The Story of Expansion . . 
CHAPTER FOUR, From Revolution to Constitution 
CHAPTER FIVE, Making the Fundamental Law 

12 



217 
232 

278 
292 
298 



CONTENTS. 13 

PART FOUR. 
Political Progress of the Nation, 1789-1904. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER ONE, Before the Time of Party Politics ... 307 
CHAPTER TWO, When Virginia's Scholars were Presi- 
dents 322 

CHAPTER THREE, The Democratic West Seeks Control . 334 

CHAPTER FOUR, The Slavery Discussion Grows Bitter . 346 

CHAPTER FIVE, Rending and Uniting the Nation . . . . 3G5 

CHAPTER SIX, The Growth of Harmony and Prosperity . 391 
CHAPTER SEVEN, Party Politics Lead to Commercial Con- 
solidation and Territorial Expansion beyond 

Seas ' 400 

PART FIVE. 

Our Nation's Wars, 1799-1898. 

CHAPTER ONE, Our First Wars, 1799-1815 ....... 415 

CHAPTER TWO, The Mexican War 432 

CHAPTER THREE, The War of Secession 444 

CHAPTER FOUR, The Spanish War 508 

PART SIX. 
Progress of American Civilization. 

CHAPTER ONE, Science and Industry- 519 

CHAPTER TWO, Culture 552 

CHAPTER THREE, Self-Government 576 

CHAPTER FOUR, American and European History ..'.-. 582 

Review of the Story and Outlook 590 



APPENDIX I. Admission of States 609 

APPENDIX II. The Presidents and Their Parties . . . . 610 

APPENDIX III. European Rulers in American History . . 611 

APPENDIX IV. Immigration Statistics 612 

APPENDIX V. The Declaration of Independence .... 613 

APPENDIX VI. The Constitution of the United States . . 617 

APPENDIX VII. Bibliographical Notes 633 

INDEX 000 



LIST OF MAPS AND CHIEF 
ILLIJSTEATIONS. 



PAGE 

The United States, including 

Extensions of Territory . Front. 
Physical Relief Map of the 

United States 20 

The Known and Unknown 

World, 1490 33 

The First Circumnavigation of 

the Globe. ...... 37 

Route of the Northmen ... 39 
Ancient Trade Routes to the 

East and New Sea Route . 41 
The New World and the Great 

Voyages 46 

The Expedition of De Soto . 52 
The Claims of European Na- 
tions in America (4 maps) . 76 
The Middle Colonies .... 83 
The Grants to the London and 
Plymouth Companies . . 92 

England in 1600 93 

The Northern Colonies ... 98 
Early New England . . . .102 
The Southern Colonies . . . 121 
The Indians in 1600 .... 133 
King Philip's War .... 142 
The French Forts and Settle- 
ments in Mississippi Valley . 165 

Louisburg, 1745 168 

The Early French Wars . .169 

The French and Indian War . 172 
Before and After the French 

and Indian War . . . . 181 

Kentucky and Tennessee . . 188 

Map of Boston 236 

The Campaigns of 1775 and 

1776 239 

Washington's Retreat from 

Long Island 241 

Clinton's Retreat from Phila- 
delphia 255 

Cornwallis's Campaign . . . 266 
The Thirteen Original States 

and their Land Claims . . 278 



PAGE 

The Philippine Islands . . 280 

Porto Rico 281 

The Hawaii Islands .... 282 
The Progress of the Center of 

Population 290 

Black Outline Map of the 

United States 291 

The Mexican War and Ces- 
sions of Territory .... 433 

Bird's-Eye View of Fortress 
Monroe ....... 461 

The War in Virginia .... 464 

The Vicksburg Campaign . . 472 
The Battle of Gettysburg . . 476 
Sherman's March to the Sea . 482 
The War in Virginia . . . 486 
Confederate Territory, 1861, 
1862, 1863, 1864, 1865 (6 

maps) 494^99 

Outline War-Maps . . . 506-507 
French Fort at Oswego . . . 176 
Franklin's Letter to Strahan . 216 
George Washington in Uniform 220 
Signatures to the Declaration 

of Independence .... 224 
Signatures to the Constitution 

of the United States ... 303 
The Statue of Liberty Enlight- 
ening the World .... 306 
Washington's Welcome to 

Trenton, 1789 308 

Theodore Parker's Placard 
Against the Fugitive Slave 

Law 353 

"Charleston Mercury*' An- 
nouncement of Secession 

Ordinance 362 

Dewey Arch, New York City . 404 
Steel-Frame Construction of a 

Modern Building .... 528 
In all, 51 Maps, 14 Facsimiles 
of Handwriting, and 221 
Pictures. 



14 



OUTLINE OF THE STOEY. 



1492-1904. 



§ 1. The Age of Discovery and Exploration, 1492-1607. 
More than four hundred years ago, the people who lived 
upon the other side of the Atlantic Ocean discovered that 
the lands that they knew were not all of the earth. To one 
man, Christopher Columbus, belongs the credit of the dis- 
covery of a New World, 1492, but by many men the truth 
of the discovery was confirmed till all people knew that 
the earth is round, and that two vast continents are west 
of Europe, three thousand miles away. For a hundred and 
more years after Columbus, sailors and soldiers came in 
slow-sailing ships from Spain, Portugal, France, Holland, 
and England to explore the wonderful land of which men 
had only dreamed before. Here they marched hundreds 
and thousands of miles, toiling, fighting, praying, and 
dying, some for gold, some for " the passage to India," 
some for lands for their sovereigns, and some for the souls 
of the native Indians. 

§ 2. The Amazing Success of Three Centuries, 1607-1904. 

Scarcely three centuries ago these adventurous spirits 
from across the sea, to whom Europe was beginning to 
seem like an Old World, hopeless, made their first efforts 
permanently to settle here. The history of our country, 
now the United States of North America, is the history of 
the permanent colonies that, beginning in Virginia, 1607, 
and Massachusetts, 1620, have steadily increased and mul- 
tiplied, until from Maine to California, and from Florida to 
Washington, we have covered the land with the homes of 

15 



16 OUTLINE OF THE STORY. 

eighty millions of people. Meantime we have secured 
independence from every nation in that Old World, whose 
offspring we are ; and we have grown rich beyond any 
other people, not only because Nature gave to this part of 
the earth great forests, extraordinarily fertile fields, abund- 
ant minerals in the mountains, and mighty lakes and rivers, 
but also because we are a self-governing nation of men 
equal before the law, to whom all opportunities have been 
in common. 

§ 3. "Wars with the Red Men. 

In these three hundred years since Virginia was first 
settled, great wars and little wars have been fought upon 
our soil. Our ancestors came here from different nations, 
and settled in various communities, often not friendly to 
each other. The " red men," who had been here for untold 
centuries before any white men had ever set foot upon 
this continent, usually resisted the advance of the new- 
comers into their hunting-grounds and gardens of corn and 
tobacco. We have had battles with the Indians within the 
memory of men now living, in the prime of their years, but 
the greatest Indian wars were fought two hundred years ago. 

The great nations of Europe, especially France and Eng- 
land, were extremely jealous of each other two centuries 
ago, and each wished to get possession of all of North 
America above the Rio Grande, leaving to Spain all of 
Central and South America. When England had won the 
final victory, 1763, after long and terrible conflicts, the 
various colonies of settlers from England, France, Sweden, 
and Holland, all of which had been subject to her for a 
hundred years, found that they were expected to help pay 
the money-costs of these wars. They resisted the rule of 



OUTLINE OF THE STORY. 17 



the mother-country across the ocean, 1775-1783, and after 
a long war, in which they were greatly helped by France, 
they became the United States of North America, only a 
century and a quarter ago. 

§ 4. A Nation with a Republican Constitution, 1787-1904. 

The new nation adopted a republican Constitution, and 
elected the hero of the War of Independence, George Wash- 
ington, our first President. EA'en at that time, 1787-1789, 
nearly two centuries after the first settlement in Virginia, 
there were less than four million citizens in the United 
States. But we soon began to grow very rapidly in num- 
bers, and to spread over a vastly greater territory than that 
of the original thirteen States. 

§ 5. The Early Expansion of the Republic, 1773-1803. 

At first the colonists from Europe settled only along the 
Atlantic coast. At the time of the Revolutionary War 
there was but one town of any size more than a few miles 
from the sea-coast. This town was Lancaster in Pennsyl- 
vania. The largest cities were New York, Philadelphia, 
Boston, and Charleston. But during the War of Indepen- 
dence and after it was over, our forefathers began to move 
their families into the West beyond the Appalachian Moun- 
tains. One of our great Presidents, Thomas Jefferson, 
secured beyond the Mississippi River a vast area, which 
then belonged to France, 1803 ; this purchase doubled the 
size of our country. 

§6. The Terrible Question of the Negro Slaves was Involved 
in that of the Right of a State to Secede, 1820-1865. 

The Northern section of the United States became very 

largely industrial and commercial, while the Southern part 



18 OUTLINE OF THE STORY. 



had a wonderful agricultural development in raising cotton 
and tobacco. Free labor became the system in the North, 
and slave labor that in the South. This difference led to 
misunderstandings, which grew worse and worse through 
the years. Meantime the United States fought a war with 
Mexico, 1846-1848, securing as a result another vast area. 
The question whether in these vast new regions industry 
and agriculture were to be carried on by free labor or by 
slave labor, and the question whether a State of the United 
States has the right to withdraw from the Union of States 
so as to control all its affairs, political, social, economic, and 
international, finally led to a terrible conflict, 1861-1865. 

§ 7. All Men Became Free and Equal before the Law, 1863-1870. 

During this War of Secession, Abraham Lincoln, Presi- 
dent of the United States, issued an Emancipation Procla- 
mation, 1863, setting free all slaves in the States that had 
confederated against the Union. The results of this, the 
greatest civil war in the history of the nations of the world, 
were that slavery ceased, and that the Union of the States 
was maintained. These matters were legally settled by 
amendments, 1865-1870, to the Constitution. 

§ 8. The Number and Wealth of Our People and the Extent 
of Our Empire. 

By the beginning of the Civil War, the thirteen original 
States had added to their number twenty-one more ; and 
the total population was over thirty-two millions, more 
than six times as many as at the beginning of our nation, 
scarcely seventy years before. In the next forty years, 
despite the terrible loss of life and property due to the war, 
we grew in numbers to more than seventy-six million people. 



OUTLINE OF THE STOKY. 19 



The development of the railroads and of the telegraph 
lines, and the finding of precious and useful metals, together 
with many inventions in machinery and discoveries in science, 
and especially in electricity, have made us very rich. We 
purchased Alaska from Russia, in 1867, and gained Porto 
Rico and the Philippine Islands as the result of a war 
with Spain, which we began because of Spanish oppression 
in Cuba, and because of the destruction of an American 
naval vessel, the Maine, in Havana harbor, in 1898. 

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the United 
States had thirty-eight different cities with over one hundred 
thousand people each ; while the largest city, New York, 
only a hundred and ten years before then had only forty- 
two thousand. Our largest city had three and a half million 
people, 1900, which was more than were in all the colonies 
together when the Revolutionary War began, in 1775. 

§ 9. The Purpose of the Study of Our Country's History is that 
"We may become Wise as well as Loyal Citizens. 

In a century and a quarter our nation has grown to be 

a great power in the general affairs of all the nations of 

the world, and our people have become in culture and wealth 

equal to any other people. Such, in outline, is the history 

of the United States. If we study all the rest of our lives, 

we can never learn all the details of this rise of a great 

nation, which has been more rapid and more astonishing in 

its range and vigor than the rise of any other nation in 

all the history of mankind. But we do not need to know 

all the details. It is enough for us now to learn sufficient 

facts to inspire us to be intelligent, good, and patriotic 

citizens of so great and so dear a country. 



SURFACE RELATIONS. 21 



HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL 
RELATIONS. 

American history tells of — 

1. The English settlement of the Atlantic coastal plain 
and of the New England foothills. 

2. The winning of the St. Lawrence basin and of the 
great interior Mississippi basin by the French. 

3. The conquest of New France, beyond the barriers of 
the Alleghany platean and of the Adirondacks, by the 
English. 

4. The national independence- of the English colonies 
and the formation of the United States to hold the coastal 
plain as far south as Florida, and also New England, the 
Alleghany plateau, and the northeastern quarter of the 
Mississippi basin. 

5. The settlement of " the land of the western waters." 

6. The purchase of the western part of the Mississippi 
basin. 

7. The purchase of the southeastern part of the Gulf- 
Atlantic coastal plain. 

8. The Struggle between slavery, which held the Gulf- 
Atlantic coastal plain, and free-labor, which held the Alle- 
ghany plateau and the Ohio river section of the upper 
Mississippi basin, for the possession of the whole of the 
western part of the basin. 

9. The annexation of Texas and the completion of our 
ownership of the Gulf coastal plain as far south as the Rio 
Grande. 

10. The winning of nearly all of the great Rocky 



22 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Mountain plateau by war with Mexico, and the settlement 
of various localities in the Far West by adventurers in 
search of the precious metals. 

11. The adjustment of our northern boundary by which 
we secured the rich Columbia plateau and valley. 

12. The epochal war between the slaveholders who held 
all the Gulf-Atlantic coastal plain from the Rio Grande to 
the Delaware, the Mississippi valley from the rivers mouth 
to and above the Missouri, the Alleghany plateau to Mason 
and Dixon's Line, and the southern side of the Ohio valley, 
and the free-labor people in the regions north and west of 
the slave-labor regions. 

13. The defeat of the barriers of the Alleghanies and 
of the Rockies by the steam locomotive running upon iron 
and later upon steel rails, and the demonstration that by 
means of steam transportation and of electric communica- 
tion a democratic government can administer efficiently the 
affairs of a great people. 

14. Through all this course of events the occupation 
of fertile soils, the finding of coal, iron, gold, silver, copper, 
and petroleum, discoveries in science, the accompanying 
progress in mechanical invention, the multiplication of our 
people, and the advance in personal liberty, culture, and 
morality, and in international power. 

15. The development of a new and characteristic civili- 
zation, essentially better than that of any other land or 
time, and manifested in a wider region and by more people, 
the whole amounting to a practical demonstration of the 
economic value of religious and political liberty. 

A thousand relations appear between the physical geog- 
raphy of our country and its history. To understand the 



SURFACE RELATIONS. 23 



principle, imagine how different the history would have 
been in the following conditions : — 

1. If the Alleghanies had run east and west, the slave- 
holders could have fortified themselves impregnably behind 
that natural mountain barrier, and there would have been 
two or more nations here. Thus the Alps have separated 
the peoples of Europe into nations. 

2. If the Mississippi River ran east, the story of settle- 
ment here would have been entirely different. Probably we 
would have become one solid nation, not a federation of 
States. 

3. If the Rockies had been in the East and the Allegha- 
nies in the West, it is likely that the whole land to-day 
would be Spanish by settlement from Mexico. 

4. If a mountain plateau separated the St. Lawrence 
basin from the Mississippi, probably the French would never 
have held the Mississippi valley. 

5. If all the country had been a great plain from the 
Rockies to the Atlantic, it is almost certain that Spain, 
France, and England would have fought upon this Conti- 
nent, terrible wars, one feature of whose outcome is certain. 
Doubtless not a republic, but a monarchy, would be the 
government of whatever people were here. 

6. If from Lake Superior there had stretched westward 
a great valley to the Pacific Ocean, the French certainly 
would have pushed on, still further extending the empire 
of New France. And if, at the same time, there had been 
a plateau where there is now the Mississippi valley, western 
Canada might have remained French to this day, while the 
English nation here would have been confined to the eastern 
part of our country. 



24 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

7. If that bow of plateaus and mountains, resting upon 
a submerged plain which presents itself above the waters 
lying between North and South, in the form of the islands 
of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, had been a continuous 
land-barrier to the advance of the Spaniards, the discovery 
of the Pacific would have been long delayed. The first cir- 
cumnavigation of the globe might not have taken place for a 
century. And the history of the sixteenth century in 
Europe as well as in America would have been very differ- 
ent from what it was. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

1. Brigham's Geographical Influences in American History. 

2. Semple's American History and its Geographic Conditions. 

3. Standard, textbooks of Physical Geography and such elementary 
school texts on Geography as deal with physiography. 

4. West Indies, in Encyclopedia Britannica. Note map of ocean- 
depths in Gulf of Mexico. 

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 

1. Rivers as State and National Boundaries : also Rivers not Bound- 
aries. Why not ? 

2. Rivers as Inlets for Settlers, especially the Potomac and the 
Hudson. 

3. The Mississippi and its Tributaries, especially the Ohio. 

4. The Appalachian Ranges as Barriers. 

5. The Arid West and its Effects : (a) Upon Early Exploration ; 
(6) Upon the Extension of Slavery ; (c) Upon Migration and Settlement, 
after 1848. 

6. The many Harbors upon the Atlantic Coast in Relation to Early 
Settlement and Trade. 

7. Lakes, Mountains, Forests, and Deserts as Boundaries of North 
American Nations. 

8. Climate and the Indians : also the Relations of Coastal Plains, 
Mountains, River Valleys to Indian life. 



PART ONE. 

DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE EARLY SEA VOYAGES. 

§ 1. Columbus Spent His Life in Adventure. 
In 1470, there came to Lisbon, the capital city, of Por- 
tugal, a sailor who was dreaming of lands far, far away on 
the western side of the ocean. He had barely escaped 
with his life from a sea-fight, and was borne ashore upon a 
plank from the wreck. Ever since he was a boy in Genoa, 
the great seaport town of Italy, Christopher Columbus had 
listened with eager soul to stories of strange adventures out 
on the Sea of Darkness, supposed by the common people 
to girdle the flat earth. Before he was thirty years of age 
he could say of himself, "Wherever ship has sailed, there 
have I journeyed." It was his life-mission to make a path- 
way for mankind across the stormy and mysterious Atlantic. 

§ 2. A Few Scholars in Italy and Portugal Believed that 
the Earth is Round. 

From Lisbon, on the eastern side of the Atlantic, 
Columbus made many voyages upon the great ocean, 
venturing south along the coast of Africa, and north, it 
may be, as far as Iceland. His brother, Bartholomew, 
lived with him in Lisbon, and Christopher married there 
Philippa Moniz, whose father, a sailor, was once governor 

25 



26 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



of the Island of Madeira, where Columbus lived for a time 
after his marriage. Portugal was a commercial country, 
and numbered many seafaring men among its inhabitants. 
A " School of Navigators " for the study of geography had 
long existed there, and a few of the citizens believed, as 
did the scholars of Italy, that the world is not flat but 
round, and that by sailing westward, one must reach the 
shores of China. Upon his great voyage Columbus had 
with him a map of the ocean by Toscanelli, a geographer, 
of Italy, and used it constantly. But among the people of 
Portugal, Spain, and Italy, there was no other man deter- 
mined, if need be at the cost of his life, to prove that the 
earth is round. 




■S- A & : 



A 



Signature of Columbus. 

§ 3. All Viewed a Long Ocean Voyage with Terror. 

The sailor who was destined to discover America was a 
very poor man. He needed ships for his expedition ; he 
needed also the protection of some great monarch so that 
he might take possession of his discoveries and hold them 
as their lord and ruler. To secure ships and royal protec- 
tion was almost impossible, for even persons of wealth and 
power were still so ignorant as to believe that if a ship 
sailed too far out on the Sea of Darkness, it would finally 
begin to slide down hill, and would either fall off the earth 



MONABCHS AND MERCHANTS HELPED COLUMBUS. 27 



or be ingulfed in the waters. None were ready to help 
Columbus in what seemed a fatal adventure. 

It is true that at this time the eastern islands of the 
Atlantic had been discovered, including Madeira, five 
hundred miles out from the mainland; but the terrific 
winter storms brought many wrecks ashore, for the little 
ships of those times were frail. Only the most reckless 
seamen dared venture far beyond sight of land. 

§ 4. Monarchs, Merchants, and Bankers Lent Aid. 

After many years the arguments of Columbus persuaded 
King John of Portugal to send out a ship, but the King did 
this secretly ; and the ship soon came back, having found 
only a strangely carved paddle, four hundred miles out from 
land. In 1484, Columbus, who had failed to persuade his 
own city of Genoa to give him ships, sent his. brother Bar- 
tholomew to see King Henry of England, and went himself 
to visit the Court of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of 
Spain. At Palos he made good friends of two merchants, 
by name Pinzon, who gave him money and helped him for- 
ward on his journey. For eight years he continued to beg 
ships and protection from Ferdinand and Isabella. At last, 
after these two monarchs of Castile and Aragon had con- 
quered the Moors of Granada, in their joy over final victory 
in long wars, they agreed to ask the city of Palos to lend 
Columbus the tnr^B ships due to them each year for three 
months as the regular tribute. Isabella permitted the 
Court banker, Santangel, to give Columbus some of his 
own money, seventeen thousand florins, to help in hiring 
men for the crews ; the Pinzons lent a third as much, and 
went as captains of the two smaller boats. 



28 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 5. Columbus had in His Crew Men from All the Nations of 
"Western and Southern Europe. 

Columbus set out August 3, 1492, with one hundred 
and twenty men, some of them debtors promised release 
from their creditors if they would go, others of them pris- 
oners from Palos jail, offered pardon, and a few others 




Columbus at dawn discovering the New World. 

Cristoforo Colombo. Born, 1446; died, 1506. Italian Sailor. No authentic portrait 
exists. The name means Christ-bearing dove, and greatly influenced his life. 

who volunteered from recklessness of character. Among 
them were Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Frenchmen, 
Englishmen, Irishmen, and Jews. Very, very few of his 
companions believed in Columbus or understood the nature 
of his undertaking. 



AMEKICA WAS DISCOVERED IN 1492. 



29 




The Santa Maria. Pinta, and Nina. 



§ 6. An Island was Discovered, October 12, 1492. 

After ten weeks of weary watching by night and by day, 
after threatened mutinies of the crews, after almost heart- 
breaking disap- 
pointments from 
mirages in the 
skies, this serene, 
self-confident, fore- 
s i gh ted man 
brought his three 
ships, the Santa 
Maria, Pinta, and 
Nina, to a little 
island on the west- 
ern side of the 
Atlantic Ocean. 
There he landed October 12, 1492, and called the island 
San Salvador, taking possession in the name of Spain. 

§ 7. Columbus made Four Voyages. 

After sailing about for three months and finding Cuba 
and other islands, he went back to Europe with several 
Indians and many trophies, ornaments, utensils, fruits, and 
trinkets. He was hailed throughout Spain as the discov- 
erer of the way to the Indies. The sovereigns of Spain, the 
lords and the grandees, feasted him, and loaded him with 
presents. He made three later voyages, seeing South Amer- 
ica in 1498. As governor he ruled the Indians unwisely, 
and made many enemies among the Spaniards. His health 
grew worse and worse, and neither rich nor honored he died in 
1506, eighteen months after the death of Queen Isabella, 
who had always been his friend and supporter. 



30 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 8. Columbus was One of the Greatest Men in all History 
Because He Accomplished what Others neither Dared nor 
Cared to Undertake. 

Columbus sought an ocean route to India and China, 
from many motives and for many reasons. He hoped to 
plant the cross of the Church in the soil of the Orient, to 
become himself the princely master of lands and peoples, 
and to grow so rich by conquest and trade that he could 
organize a crusade against the unbelieving Saracens for the 
recovery of the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem. He believed 
that Cathay was but a few days' voyage beyond Madeira. 

Religious, political, financial, and scientific ambitions all 
conspired in his soul to make him one of the greatest men 
of all history. Columbus deserves the entire credit for the 
discovery of America, even though others saw the main- 
land of South America before he reached it, and though he 
never saw the mainland of North America. He alone had 
the courage, the self-sacrifice, and the ability to achieve what 
others simply dreamed. His life story, both as told by him- 
self and as recorded by his contemporaries, is that of one 
who sacrificed everything to his one great purpose of finding 
the ocean route to India. Neither poverty nor the loneli- 
ness of a mind charged with a new idea, neither public fear 
of him as a madman nor bitter opposition to him as a de- 
stroyer of common beliefs, could turn him aside from his 
object. Political and religious persecution followed him 
even after his great discovery; and he died sorrowing 
because the mighty fresh- water current of the Orinoco con- 
vinced him that he had found, not the islands of the Orient, 
but a great continent. He had found instead of India, 
China and Japan, a new world. 



THERE WAS XEED OF A NEW WORLD. 31 



§ 9. The Discovery of the New "World Revolutionized the 
Conditions of Human Life in Europe, Asia, and Africa. 

This discovery was of extraordinary importance to man- 
kind at the end of the fifteenth century. Unrest in their 
habitations had caused the great migrations of the Teutonic 
nations southward from Germany and Scandinavia in earlier 
centuries. The Genoese were of the same Teutonic blood 
as the Vikings. Unrest of the Saracens and Turks had 
urged them westward from Southwestern Asia, till finally 
they had seized Constantinople in 1453. Unrest of all 
Europeans had driven them against the Saracens in many 
Crusades southeastward to Jerusalem. Now the unrest was 
of the mind and heart. An awakening of the mind as seen 
in the Italian and French Renaissance, which continued to 
the time of Columbus, was leading to an arousing of the 
heart soon to be seen in the German and English Reforma- 
tions. In all nations there was the sense of need of some 
new land of adventure, of opportunity, and of refuge. 

§ 10. Columbus in Discovering the New "World Set Free 
the Old. 

Columbus felt all this and more. To him the recently 
invented compass pointed westward as the route to which 
to divert the rich trade of Persia, India, and China ; for the 
paths of the Asian caravans were now imperiled by Turk- 
ish and other brigands, and the Mediterranean was infested 
with pirates. As Islam pressed against Christendom, 
Columbus saw in the vision of far Cathay a new field for 
the Christian missionary. We call Columbus the discov- 
erer of America, but that great man was equally the savior 
of Europe. He made the Mediterranean, formerly the 



32 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

scene of the world's trade, a minor inland sea. He turned 
all Europe from facing east to facing west. He gave the 
poor and the oppressed a new world. His persistent soul 
and his keen mind made him one of the most useful and 
one of the most heroic men of all the world's history. 

§ 11. Marco Polo had Begun the Movement of Oriental Travel 
that Resulted in Finding the New "World. 

In the thirteenth century a Venetian lad with his father 
and uncle made a trip overland into China, where they re- 
mained for many years engaged in trade. They returned 
to Venice by way of the sea to India, and then once again 
traveled by caravan across Persia. They were gone from 
Italy twenty-four years, and on their return had many won- 
derful stories to tell of the wealth and customs of Asia. 
These the youngest of the party wrote out in 1299, in a 
book called Marco Polo's Travels. The adventures and 
the wonders were greatly exaggerated, but the book made 
all people curious about the Far East, and made some anx- 
ious to get there by a short route. 

§12. Vasco da Gama Discovered the Sea-route to India. 

Early in the fifteenth century the Portuguese began sys- 
tematic efforts to discover the facts about the west coast of 
Africa. They found Madeira in 1416, and the Azores in 
1449. In 1484, the year Columbus went to Spain, they 
crossed below the equator, and first beheld the glory of the 
Southern Cross in the skies, a sight hitherto unknown to 
the eyes of white men. Two years later ^Bartholomew 
Diaz, with Bartholomew Columbus among his companions, 
reached the Cape of Good Hope. In 1498, the year of 



DA GAMA SAILS TO INDIA. 



33 



^m 



M i 












SKS* 



FS 







Known and Unknown World. 



Christopher Columbus's third voyage, in which he reached 
the coast of South America, Vasco da Gamu rounded 
the Cape of Good Hope and went up the east coast of 
Africa, and across the Indian Ocean to Madras in India. 
This voyage proved what the Arabs had told the Portu- 
guese, that India could be reached by the ocean. This was 
the crowning event in the history of the persistent efforts 
of the Portuguese to win for Western Europe from Venice, 
until then mistress of the rich Oriental trade, supremacy 
upon the sea. It led to the voyages by which Portugal won 
the East Indies. 



34 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 13. John Cabot and Others soon Followed Columbus 
Across the Western Ocean. 

The discovery by Columbus in 1492 at once inspired the 
greatest rivalry between the leading nations of Europe, — 
France, Spain, Portugal, and England. The new rivalry 
developed in their peoples a sense of nationality that was 
itself new, for in earlier times in Europe the kings and lords 
and the few free citizens of the cities alone were impor- 
tant, and they looked upon the people as their soldiers and 
laborers. And the people were too busy, too ignorant, too 
oppressed, to think what they themselves were. For them, 
as citizens of nations, a new age was about to come ! Each 
of these nations, except Portugal, was chiefly dependent 
upon Venice, and her great rival, Genoa, for sea-captains. 

At that time when the sailors were both superstitious and 
undisciplined, only the Venetian and Genoese captains 
could control the mutinous and piratical crews. It was 
an age when peaceful trade was unusual, when the Medi- 
terranean and Black Seas swarmed with pirates, and in the 
hills and valleys of Europe and Asia brigands seemed 
almost as common as farmers, when indeed many traders 
were themselves pirates, and many farmers were brigands. 
Such cities as Venice, Florence, and Genoa, with their hon- 
est merchants, bankers, seamen, were lights in the dark 
world. To the people of Northern Italy we owe the pres- 
ervation of scholarship and of business and property as 
well as the discovery of both Americas. The discoverers 
themselves reaped very small rewards from their dangerous 
voyages in their little boats of one or two hundred tons 
burden. Henry VII of England gave John Cabot, the 
Venetian, who discovered North America in 1497, but fifty 



THE NEW WORLD WAS NAMED AMERICA. 



35 



dollars and a very small annual pension ; but the common 
people hailed him as "the Great Admiral." In 1500, two 
Portuguese sailors made important voyages, Cortereal sailing 
along from Maine to Newfoundland, and Cabral first being 
driven by a storm to the coast of Brazil, and then turning 
eastward and going around Africa to India. In 1506, 
Denvs for France found the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 



§ 14. The New World was Named after Americus Vespucius. 

These voyages fairly determined the future claims in the 
New World, of England to the coast of North America, 
of France to the St. Lawrence 
River, of Portugal to Brazil, 
and of Spain to all the rest. 
But Italy, which furnished the 
sea-captains, had the naming of 
the "New World." 

For it was Americus Vespu- 
cius of Florence, a merchant 
and geographer, who first 
thought to call the lands that 
Columbus, his friend, discov- 
ered, "mondnm novum" the 
world new. He made several 
voyages, beginning, perhaps, in 
1497, but more likely in 1499. 
Later a famous map was made by a friend of his, Waldsee- 
muller. This friend was a teacher of a little college at St. 
Die in the Yosges Mountains, on the borders of France and 
Germany. In the map the mainland we now know as 




Americus Vespuckis. 

Amerigo Vespucci, Italian geographer : 

traveler. -Born, 1451 : died, 1512. 



36 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



South America was named for the great traveler, and the 
islands for Columbus. Not -until explorers found that 
North and South America join was the name America 
given to both continents. It is one of the accidents of his- 
tory that the New World was not named Columbia, but 
America in honor of one of the most energetic of Colum- 
bus's contemporaries. At that time it was something of 
a reproach to all explorers that they had found a new 
world, and not a new way to the " Old World " of Japan, 
China, and the Indies, with their treasures of gold, marble, 
silks, teas, spices, and dye-woods. 



15. De Leon Explored Florida, and Balboa Discovered 
the Pacific Ocean. 

In 1513, Ponce de Leon, con- 
queror and governor of Porto 
Rico, landed in Florida and ex- 
plored its interior, searching for 
a fabled fountain of youth. The 
same year Vasco Nunez de Bal- 
boa, also a Spaniard, from the 
summit of a lofty mountain on 
the Isthmus of Darien saw 
stretching to the south and west 
the vast expanse of the Pacific 
Ocean. Pressing forward with 
his little band of followers he 
reached the shores a few days 
later, and claimed them for 

Spain and the Christian Church. He named the waters 

the South Sea. 




Balboa claiming the Pacific Ocean 
fot Spain and the Church. 



MAGELLAN SAILED AROUND THE EAUTH. 



87 



§ 16.— Magellan and Del 
Cano Sailed Around 
the Earth. 

But more wonderful 
than any other achieve- 
ment of this period of 
adventure, which saw 
such an amazing display 
of intelligence, energy, 
and courage was that of 
the Portuguese sailor 
Magellan in 1519 to 
1521. In the service of 
Spain he sailed along 
the coast of South 
America, and passed 
through the straits that 
bear his name. After 
frightful experiences of 
starvation and mutiny, 
with but two of the five 
ships in which he set 
out he reached the Phil- 
ippine Islands, where he 
was killed by the na- 
tives. Del Cano, captain 
of one of his ships, the 
Victoria, with a crew of 
eighteen men, continued 
westward and at length 
reached Lisbon, proving 
beyond doubt the theory 




38 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



of the geographers and the faith of Columbus, that the 
earth is round. The other ship was lost in an attempt to 

reach Panama. Magellan was 
as stout a soul as ever sailed a 
ship upon the seas, and many 
of his men were worthy of him. 
He was himself a circumnavi- 
gator of the earth, for, in the 
service of Portugal, he had 
reached the Molucca Islands in 
earlier voyages by sailing around 
Africa and through the Indian 
Ocean. 




Ferdinand Magellan. 

Fernao de Magalhaes. Portuguese 
Sailor. Born, 1480; died, I 521 . 



§17. — The Norsemen Found the 
New World Five Hundred 
Years before Columbus. 

The Sagas of Iceland recite 

the voyages of the Northmen to Greenland and Vinland. 

Probably about 

the year 1000 

Leif Ericson 

re a ch e d the 

coast of N e w 

England. But 

the Norsemen 

left no buildings 

o r monuments 

to tell of any 

Europeans liv- 

of 




ing west 
Greenland at this time. 



Gudrida and Thorfin in Vinland. 

The seacoast of Europe was then 



THE NORTHMEN. 



39 



in a state of great commotion from plundering bands that 
moved southward and eastward, from Norway into France, 
Sicily, and England. The Northmen soon became leaders 




Route of the Northmen. 



in Europe, gaining place and power in Church and State. 
Six centuries after Leif's visit, the descendants of the 
Vikings, not, like themselves, pirates and free-booters, but 
scholars, merchants, and farmers, came to people America. 

From the Vikings' discovery of America nothing resulted 
to make it important to the history of the world, unless 
possibly Columbus had his views strengthened by knowl- 
edge of their traditions. Among Norse tales is that of 
Thorfin and his bride, Gudrida, to whom was born Snorri, 
the first white child in America. The tradition recites a 
visit of Gudrida to the Pope at Rome to tell of the need 
of missionaries to the natives of Vinland. 



§ 18. Fishermen and Fur-traders Followed in the Path of 
the Adventurous Discoverers. 

But there were other traditions also afloat, of Catholic 

priests visiting a western world in ships from Ireland ; and, 

toward the time of the founding of the Portuguese School 



40 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



of Navigators, there were tales of fishermen from France 
and Portugal who had made great catches of fish in waters 
far to the northwest. Certain it is that as early as 1500 
the Portuguese sent regular fishing fleets to the Grand 
Banks off the Newfoundland coast. But who were to be- 
lieve fishermen's tales before the great lords and merchants 
and sea-captains dared venture a day's journey out of sight 
of land ? In Portugal was the story of a sea-captain driven 
by a fortnight's storm to a great new continent, as Cabral 
actually was in 1500. There were many wonderful tales 
afloat, and no one knew what to believe and what to discard. 
Written history records that the fishing fleets followed as 
close upon the ships of the discoverers as the fur-traders 
•later followed the perilous tracks of the explorers on land. 
To-day in Province town, upon the end of Cape Cod, the 
people of Portuguese descent outnumber the English. 

§ 19. Compass, Gunpowder, Azimuth, and Printing-types 
Changed Old Times into New. 

The great inventions of the fifteenth century had each a 
vast deal to do with its history, and marvelously changed 
the aspects of human life. These were gunpowder that 
made all men equal, since with it a peasant could kill a 
lord, and also made the conquest of the New World easy ; 
the compass and astrolabe (now developed into the azi- 
muth) that guided sailors upon the seas and made systematic 
voyaging possible ; and the printing-types that spread knowl- 
edge through all classes, and into all parts of the world. 
Gunpowder overthrew the old aristocracies ; compass and 
azimuth opened up all the oceans and continents to trade ; 
and the printing-types made scholarly intelligence common. 



THE GREAT INVENTIONS. 



41 



All fields of activity felt the immense new forces of the 
freed spirit of mankind. Agriculture, commerce, manufac- 
ture, scholarship, religion, government, education, even war- 
fare, showed new energy in new methods and purposes. 
The sons of the poor found opportunity in the changed 
social conditions that followed the breaking-up of the old 
feudal relations of lords and bondmen. Cities grew rapidly. 
Serfs bound to the lands of masters fled to the freedom of 
the cities and of the sea, finding safety and wages. The 
ocean-barrier became a bridge, and sunset in the west of 
Europe a beacon-light to liberty in America. 




§ 20. A Very Important Motive for These Sea-adventures was 
the Desire for an All-sea Route to India. 

Before the discoveries of the Straits of Magellan, and of 

the Cape of Good Hope, the treasures of Asia were brought 

by either of two routes into Europe. They were carried in 

ships from India by the Indian Ocean and the Persian 



42 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



Gulf, then in boats up the Tigris River, and across land by 
caravans of camels to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea ; 
or ships from India went up the Red Sea to a point from 
which their merchandise was carried overland to Cairo. 
Every year hundreds of ships sailed from Venice and 
Genoa, carrying goods manufactured in Europe, and ex- 
changing them in Egypt or Asia Minor for articles of 
luxury from India. The Turks, a savage people from Cen- 
tral Asia, conquered Western Asia and Eastern Europe, and 
began to put an end to this Oriental trade, on both sea and 
land. 

§ 21. For Two Centuries after Columbus the World of 
Merchants Continued to Hope for some Short Passage 
through America. 

Columbus had put to the test the theory held by many 
men before him that the earth is round. Scholars who 
lived three and even four thousand years ago believed this. 
Aristotle, a philosopher of Greece, who lived three centu- 
ries before the Christian era, had declared that by sailing 
westward men would reach Asia. Several men, of the 
time of Columbus, had drawn maps showing Asia west of 
Europe. China was placed where California really is. 
These map-makers did not make the world too small, but 
they made Asia several times too large. But for this mis- 
take Ferdinand and Isabella would never have undertaken 
the great enterprise of authorizing and assisting the expe- 
dition. When Columbus reached San Salvador and Cuba, 
he believed that he had reached islands off the coast of 
Asia. It required two hundred years more to prove finally 
that America is a vast continent, — in fact, a new world, 
half as great as the old. 



EARLY SEA VOYAGES. 



43 




The Vikings Sailed on Every Sea. 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 



1. What city was the birthplace of Columbus ? In what land is it '? 

2. Before 1492 what did the common people think of voyages upon 
the Atlantic Ocean ? 

Whom did Columbus marry in Portugal ? 
What " school " was there in Portugal ? 

Why did Columbus need royal protection for his proposed voyage ? 
What monarchs and merchants finally helped him ? 
What persons formed the crews of the ships of Columbus ? 
What difficulties did he meet on the voyage ? 
How did the Spaniards welcome him upon his return ? 
Did Columbus die rich and honored ? 

What reasons are there to call Columbus one of the greatest heroes 
of history ? 

12. What motives inspired his life ? What was his object in life ? 

13. Why did the people of Europe rejoice in the discovery of a "New 
World" ? 

14. What changes were made in Europe by the discovery ? 

15. What were the results of the Turkish invasion of Western Asia ? 

16. What regions were traveled by Marco Polo in the thirteenth 
century ? 

17. What was the effect upon Europe of Marco Polo's book ? 



10. 

11. 



44 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



18. Who discovered the way from Europe to India by sea ? 

19. What cities of Italy gave sea-captains for the new voyages upon 
the Atlantic ? 

20. Who discovered North America ? 

21. For whom was the New World named ? For what reasons ? 

22. Who was the first explorer of Florida ? 

23. Who was the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean ? 

24. Who were the first sea-captains to sail around the world ? 

25. What scientific inventions assisted in these discoveries, and in 
changing the conditions of life in the Old World ? 

26. What were the ancient trade-routes ? 

27. How many centuries of effort were required to prove finally that 
America blocks the western. way to India ? 



SUGGESTED READINGS. 

These references are for the teachers, from Avhich to make such extracts as may 
seem useful and attractive. 

Hart's Contemporaries : Vol. I., Part II., Chap. III., Northmen, Columbus. 
Cabot, America: Chap. IV., Cabot, Norumbega. 

Hart's Source Readers : Vol. I., Thorfin and Gudrida, Columbus, Cabot, 
Balboa. 

Sparks's Expansion : Chap. I., Need of a New World. 

Old South Leaflets: Nos. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33. Norse and Spanish Voyages. 

Irving's Columbus. 

Thacher's Columbus. 

Vignaud's Columbus and Toscanelli. 

Yule's Marco Polo. 

Channing's Student's History of JJ. S. 

Hall's Viking Tales. 

Fiske's Discovery of America. 

Winsor's Narrative and Critical History. 

See also Bibliography in Appendix. 

Consult also the standard encyclopaedias : Columbus, Vespucius, Cabot, 
Balboa, Ponce de Leon, Magellan, Northmen, Eenaissance, Tosca- 
nelli, Behaim, Aristotle, Marco Polo, Saracens, Turks, Moors, etc. 



EARLY SEA VOYAGES. 45 



TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION BY 
INDIVIDUALS OR THE CLASS. 

For the purposes and uses of these topics, see Appendix. 

1. Theories of the Earth's Shape. 

2. "Lost Atlantis." 

3. The Norse Sagas. 

4. The Early Life of Columbus : Columbus in Spain : The Later 
Voyages of Columbus. 

5. The Causes of Opposition to Columbus. 

6. San Salvador, meaning " Holy Saviour," and commemorating 
Cristofero : Guanahani, now Watling Island, in the Bahamas. 

7. Vinland and Noruinbega. 

8. Magellan in the Moluccas: His Death. 

9. Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco da Gama. 

10. The Wars with the Moors. 

11. The Great Inventions : Compass, Astrolabe, Gunpowder, Printing- 
press. 

12. American Poems Celebrating these Great Events. 

13. The Mediterranean Sea and its Ancient Trade. 
IE The Asian Caravans. 

15. The Riches of China and India. 

16. Tartars, Saracens, and Turks. 

17. Prince Henry of Portugal, '* The Navigator. " 

18. Toscanelli's Map, Waldseemiiller's Map, and Behaim's Globe. 

19. The Old Rivalry of Genoa and Venice. 

20. The New Rivalry of Spain and Portugal. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

The sole purpose of these dates is to assist the learner in keeping the order and 
sequence of events correctly in mind. 

1453. The savage Turks take Constantinople, drive away the scholars, 
and ruin the trade of the merchants. 

1492. Columbus discovers the islands of the New World, and reports his 
discoveries to the Spanish monarchs. 

1498. Cabot discovers North America. 

1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 

1520. Magellan completes the proof that the world is round. 



46 



THE NEW WORLD. 



From the Discovery of the New World to the Discovery of the Northwest Passage to Asia 

T\ \v 1010 ^\ V ATLANTIC f d 

A M E R r^C A_J>, ' -^— ■-'- --.- .-m-^J^ 

- ^J^Q^/^' Cartier 1535 w^^^ 

^*V &f%j-A^& 1 ?. Deny* l§gg v 00 o^s*^oo5^§ 

\\fc /C^^^^V-^ f^ Azores- ^Oo-^-^'lPalosi 

\ k f / ^'^^j^ ^^rerrazza^ 15 , 23 -f T , .' madeii 

\M\\\ P a ef^ ivS?>a, .——'•> -af^/ 

1520 //? Tt^yy 

^t^L DISCOVERIES AND 

EXPLORATIONS 




We know actually the courses pursued upon these voyages in but few cases. Most of the 

captains touched at the Azores. The dates given are central for the voyage 

when they lasted more than a year. 



EARLY EXPLORATIONS. 



47 



CHAPTER II. 



THE EARLY EXPLORATIONS. "~ 

§ 1. Spain Began the Conquest of the New World. 

All of the great sea-rovers — 
Columbus, Da Gama, John and 
Sebastian Cabot, Magellan, and 
the other adventurers of this 
early time — were either Italians 
or Portuguese, for the people of 
Italy and Portugal were lovers 
of the sea. The Spaniards were 
soldiers. For many generations 
they had been accustomed to 
warfare against the Mohamme- 
dan Moors in Spain until Fer- 
dinand and Isabella drove out 
the infidels. They were lovers 
of daring exploits upon the land. 

When peace came to Spain, her sons could not give up the 
habit of war. The first Spanish leaders in the New World 
were De Leon and Balboa ; both were soldiers rather than 
sailors, and both, sword in hand, took to the exploration of 
the new lands. Their motives were partly religious, partly 
ambitious. They would destroy heathenism, and take its 
treasures. 




The Spanish Soldiers in the City of 
Mexico. 



§ 2. Cortes Won Mexico and Vast Treasures. 

The early voyagers to the coast of America — Columbus, 
Vespucius, Cabral, Cortereai, even Balboa and De Leon, not 



48 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



to mention the many others whose astonishing and often 
cruel adventures are worthy of record in longer histories 
than this — were content to skirt the coasts of the islands 
and continents of the New World, with only occasional 




Cortes charging the Mexicans. 

(The native Aztecs, though skilled in warfare, were almost defenceless against the Spaniards 
with their horses, cannon, and steel weapons and armor.) 

short journeys into the inland country for trade and 
plunder. With Hernando Cortes of Spain a new period 
began, in 1519, for then the great nobles began to take 
vigorous interest in the possibilities of enriching themselves 
from the treasures of the New World. Cortes, like most 
of the leaders of this period, had taken part in earlier expe- 
ditions, and was a military adventurer by profession. With 
but six hundred soldiers, he fought his way forward from 
Vera Cruz through the mountains till he reached Mexico, 



CORTES CONQUERED THE AZTECS. 



49 



the Capital city of the Aztecs, and took captive their ruler. 
Montezuma. In 
succeeding years 
he explored the 
western coast of 
Mexico. Reports 
went home to 
Spain of fabulous 
wealth and a 
splendid native 
civilization in 
Mexico ; and the 
reports, greatly 
exaggerating the 
facts, served to 
fire the imagina- 
tion of Spain and of all the rest of Europe with pictures 
of wonders across the ocean. 




:...;i£.* : ^'^#' ! : 



- -- 



Ruined Toltec Temple at Lb 



§ 3. Pizarro Won Peru and Untold "Wealth. 

The story of the conqueror of Peru is, in its cruelty and 
courage, like that of Cortes in Mexico ; for, with a few 
hundred soldiers, Francisco Pizarro won all the wealth of 
the Incas, the richest and greatest people in the Xew 
World. In Peru marvelous treasures of gold and silver 
were found in the beautiful temples and palaces. 

Everywhere the natives were treated with incredible 
cruelty. The indolent but amiable West Indians, in per- 
sonal appearance the most pleasing of all the American 
aborigines, were almost totally destroyed ; and the Mexi- 
cans and Peruvians were greatly reduced in numbers. 



50 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 4. Spain Became Enormously Rich. 

By their various public revenues from the new provinces 
over the sea the monarchs of Spain became the richest, as 
they were already the greatest, rulers of Europe. They 
employed in their quicksilver mines, Indian slaves from 
America, as well as Moors from Granada and Negroes from 
Africa. The grandees of Spain soon had great private 
incomes from their foreign properties, so that the discovery 

of Columbus enriched the Span- 
ish people far beyond his dreams. 
America gave Spain in two hun- 
dred years the value of twenty 
billions of dollars in gold, silver, 
and jewels; Indian slaves un- 
numbered ; and an untold wealth 
of hides, sugar, mahogany, and 
other merchandise. 

§ 5. France Undertook Explora- 
tions North of the Possessions 
of Spain. 




Jacques Cartier. 

French Sailor. Born, 1494; died, later 
than I 552. (Exact date unknown.) 



France, too, began to take 
a strong interest in the new 
continents, sending Verrazzano, 
a Venetian, in 1524. He discovered New York harbor 
in the course of his voyage along the coast from North 
Carolina to Connecticut. Cartier came in 1534, and 
in 1535 explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the sur- 
rounding country. The French Ave re not destined to 
find such vast wealth as that which so greatly enriched 
the Spaniards, though the fur-traders soon followed the 



1>E YACA CROSSED NORTH AMERICA. 



51 



explorers, and grew rich by bartering all kinds of articles of 
European manufacture for the beautiful skins of the otter 
and beaver of Canada. 

§ 6. Cabeza de Vaca Crossed from Florida to California. 

Of the amazing adventures of men in the middle decades 
of the sixteenth century, those of Cabeza de Vaca, Her- 
nando de Soto, and Vasquez de Coronado were largely 
within the present territory of the United States. In 1535, 
Xarvaez led an expedition from Florida, which soon was 
reduced to but four survivors, among whom Cabeza was 
the most prominent. In spite of the difficulties of river, 
swamp, forest, desert, and enemies, these four persisted, 
until, in two years, they had journeyed by water and land 
all the way from Florida to the Gulf of California. 




De Soto's Discovery of the Mississippi. 



52 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 



§ 7. De Soto Crossed the Mississippi River. 
In 1539, De Soto led a magnificent expedition of six 
hundred gallant soldiers, who hoped to find in the region 
north of the Gulf of Mexico a land of measureless wealth. 
After several years of wandering, he found the Mississippi 
River, and then died from fatigue and privations. His 

few surviving com- 
rades buried him 
in the bed of the 
river. De Soto met 
continual resist- 
ance from the Indi- 
ans, for the native 
inhabitants of the 
Unit ed States, 
though less ad- 
vanced in culture 
than the Aztecs 
and the Incas, were far more dangerous to the proud and 
heartless invaders of their land than they. 




§ 8. Coronado Explored the Plains and Prairies. 
Coronado set out from Mexico in 1540, and explored 
Arizona, New Mexico, the valley of the Colorado River, 
and Kansas, and returned with marvelous tales of the 
Rocky Mountains and of the great deserts, plains, and 
prairies. He did not find the magnificent fabled Seven 
Cities of Cibola, of which the missionary friar, Marcos de 
Niza, had carried glowing reports to Mexico. Instead he 
found the pueblos and cliff-villages of the Indians shining 
white in the brilliant sunlight of an arid land. 



SPA1X DEFEATED THE PLAN OF FRANCE. D6 

§ 9. Ribault from France Founded a Colony in Florida. 

In 1562, an effort was made by the French to establish 
a colony in North America. Ribault, a leader of the 
Huguenots, who were the Protestants of France, established 
a little colony in Florida, and went back for more settlers. 
In 1564, Laudonniere found the site of the colony deserted, 
and established a new colony a little farther south. 

§ 10. The Spaniards Founded St. Augustine in Florida, 
1565, and Destroyed the French Colony. 

In 1565, the Spaniards set up a rival colony near by. A 
short time after, when Ribault's fleet, which had recently 
been sent from France to assist the Huguenot colony, was 
away from the harbor, the Spaniards attacked and destroyed 
the colony. A terrible hurricane wrecked Ribault's ships 
upon the coast ; and the Spaniards, under Menendez, killed 
or captured the survivors. The Huguenots might have 
resisted the Spaniards successfully, if they had not traded 
their cannon a few days earlier for one of the ships of 
Hawkins, the English captain and freebooter, whose adven- 
tures in piracy and slave-trading made him at this time 
the terror of all the seas. The success of the Spaniards 
led to the permanent establishment in Florida, of St. Aug- 
ustine, 1565, the oldest city settled by Europeans within the 
present limits of the United States. If France rather than 
Spain had succeeded, the entire Atlantic coast might have 
become French rather than English. 

§ 11. Drake Circumnavigated the Earth, and Added Great 
Territories to the Claims of England. 

In 1577 was begun by Drake the second voyage around 
the world, but the Englishman's purpose was very different 



54 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



from that of the Portuguese, Magellan, who desired to win 
new lands for Spain. Drake hoped to despoil the treasure 
ships bound for Spain from the ports on the Pacific side of 
South America. He captured several vessels and an enor- 
mous amount of silver and gold ; but, fearing Spain's war- 
vessels, he did not dare to return by way of the Straits of 
Magellan. He went far up the coast of North America, 
even beyond the point reached by Ferrelo in the employ of 
Spain in 1542, turned back to a westward course near the 
latitude of San Francisco, and sailed thence to the Cape of 
Good Hope, reaching England a great hero and very rich. 



§ 12. Raleigh for England Undertook a Great Colony 
which Completely Failed. 

Soon after this exploit, Raleigh began, in 1584, the 

attempts to colonize North 
America that ended in his finan- 
cial ruin. His first expedition 
brought back the report that the 
locality visited, the sounds of 
North Carolina, was a land " the 
most plentiful of all the world," 
and inhabited by most agreeable 
people. For this expedition 
Queen Elizabeth knighted 
Raleigh, and called the land 
Virginia, in honor of herself, the 
Virgin Queen. In 1585, a col- 
ony of over one hundred persons 
was established, but they spent 
their time in looking for gold and in quarreling with the 




Sir Walter Raleigh. 

Born, I 552 j died, 1618. Sail 
soldier: author: statesman. 



ENGLAND DEFEATED SPAIN ON THE SEA. 55 



Indians, and but for the visit of Drake next year would 
have starved to death. He carried them back to England. 
Meantime Raleigh had sent out other colonists, who found 
Roanoke Island, the scene of the earlier colony, abandoned. 
In 1587, another expedition of colonists arrived. Shortly 
afterwards, Virginia Dare was born, the first child of Eng- 
lish parents known to have been born in the New World. 
But in 1590 came another -expedition, only to find the 
last colony gone. What became of these people no one 
knows. It is probable that the neighboring Indians killed 
some of them, but took others prisoners, and later adopted 
them into their own tribe and clans. 

§ 13. The Seamen of England Overthrew the Power of 
Spain, 1588. 

Very likely Raleigh would have been successful in estab- 
lishing his colony but for events that lie outside of the 
scenes of American history, though greatly affecting its 
course ; for in 1588, the great seamen of England, Raleigh, 
Hawkins, and Drake, were busy defending their native 
land from that " Invincible Armada " of Philip the Second 
of Spain, whose one hundred and thirty ships carried thirty 
thousand men for the invasion of England. Neither Queen 
Elizabeth nor Sir Walter Raleigh had time or money or 
men to spare for the far distant colony. The terrible defeat 
and destruction of the Armada suddenly checked the power 
of Spain and brought new glory to England. From the 
year 1588 not Spain but England was the great power 
in the New World, even though in 1580 Portugal and the 
colonies of Portugal became subject to Spain, remaining 
dependencies for sixty years. 



56 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 14. Spain Deserved to Fail. 

The conquest of the Moors by the Spaniards made them 
cruel by long fighting and by familiarity with the horrors 
of war. The conquest of the Aztecs and Incas made the 
Spaniards rich without work. They added to their cruelty, 
indolence and pride. The decline of Spain began with the 
victories of Cortes and Pizarro, which so vastly extended 
their dominions and enriched their coffers. The overthrow 
of their sea-power by England, and the fearful domestic 
strife over religion, reduced Spain to the position of an in- 
ferior nation, and gave supremacy to England and France. 

§ 15. Las Casas Devoted His Life to Helping the Indians. 

However, no nation can be wholly cruel. Las Casas 
devoted his life of more than fourscore years and ten to 
helping the Indians whom his Spanish fellow-countrymen 
enslaved. He went among them as a missionary in Cuba, 
San Domingo, Mexico, and Peru. He urged the great 
Emperor, Charles V. of Germany and Spain, to set them 
free. He preached among the Spanish people the great 
principles of human brotherhood. To his faithful record 
we are indebted for much of our knowledge of Columbus 
and his immediate successors. Las Casas and many others 
like him did noble work, founding missions, teaching useful 
trades, and trying to protect the slaves from the cruelties 
of their proud masters. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What reasons may be given why the Italians were sailors and the 
Spaniards were soldiers in the New World ? 

2. What region did Cortes win for Spain ? What was his own fate ? 

3. What reports of his adventures went home to Spain ? 



EARLY EXPLORATIONS. 57 



4. What people did Pizarro overcome and destroy ? 

5. What was the effect upon Spain of the New World's wealth ? 

6. What were the discoveries of Verrazzano and Cartier ? For what 
nation were their voyages made ? 

7. What was the chief wealth of the Indians of the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence ? 

8. What did Cabeza de Vaca accomplish ? 

9. Who discovered the Mississippi River ? What was his fate ? 

10. Who first saw the Rocky Mountains and the great plains ? 

11. What was the history of the Huguenot colony in Florida ? 

12. What city is the oldest in the United States ? Who founded it ? 

13. Who made the second voyage around the world ? With what 
result in wealth and fame ? 

14. What was the history of Raleigh's colony ? 

15. What prevented the final success of his plans to establish a colony ? 

16. When and in what way was the power of Spain overthrown ? 

17. What were the causes of the decline of Spain ? 

18. Were all the Spaniards cruel ? Whose life was in contrast with 
that of the soldiers ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. I., Part II., Chap. Ill, : Gold and Silver. 

Cortes, Montezuma, Pizarro, De Soto, Coronado, Hawkins, Drake, 

Roanoke Colony, Raleigh, Verrazzano, Cartier, The Huguenot Colony. 
Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I. : Gold, De Soto's Death. 
Hart's Source Book: Coronado, Drake. 

Parkman's Pioneers of France, Vol. I. : Ribault and Menendez. 
E. E. Hale's Stories of Discovery. 
Thwaites's Colonies, Chap. II. (Vol. I., Hart's Epochs of American 

History). 
Lummis's Spanish Explorers: Coronado. 
Higginson' s Exp lorers : Verrazzano, Raleigh, Cartier. 
Presco tt' s Mexico: Peru: Cortes, Pizarro. 
Consult the standard encyclopaedias upon these topics : also Spanish 

Armada, Philip II., Charles V, 

TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION BY INDI- 
VIDUALS OR THE CLASS. 

1. Portugal as a Sea-power. 

2. The Aztecs ; Montezuma ; The Incas. 



58 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



3. Indian Slavery. 

4. The French Fur-trade. 

5. The voyages of Verrazzano and Cartier. 

6. Narvaez and his Expedition. 

7. De Soto : his Wife and Family, Earlier Career, Expedition, Death. 

8. Coronado, and the " Seven Cities of Cibola." 

9. Menendez as a Crusader. 

10. The French Huguenots and Admiral Coligny. 

11. Hawkins, the Pirate. 

12. St. Augustine's Later History. 

13. The Voyage of Drake and His Later Adventures. 

14. The Misfortunes and Sad Ending of Sir Walter Raleigh. 

15. Raleigh's History of the World. 

16. The Leaders of the Roanoke Colony : Amidas, Barlowe. 

17. Tobacco, Its First Reception in Europe. 

18. The Destruction of the Armada and Philip the Second's Despair. 

19. The Quicksilver Mines of Spain. 

20. The Inquisition in Spain. 

21. Las Casas and His Fight agaiist Indian Slavery. 

22. England and Her Loss of Territory in France. 

23. The Expulsion of the Moriscoes from Spain, and the Consequent 
Decline of the Industrial Arts. 

24. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Raleigh's Brother. 

25. Sir Richard Grenville, Raleigh's Cousin. 

26. Hariot, the Inventor of Algebra, and His Adventures in Roanoke 
Colony. 

27. The Spanish in Cuba : in Porto Rico. 

28. What Became of the Roanoke Colonists ? 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1492. Columbus discovers San Salvador (Watling's Island). 

1506. Denys discovers St. Lawrence Gulf. 

1534-5. Cartier explores St. Lawrence Eiver. 

1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 

1542-3. Cabrillo and Ferrelo explore the California coast. 

1565. The Spanish establish St. Augustine. 

1577. Drake makes the second voyage around the earth. 

J 588, The Spanish Armada is destroyed. 



THE UNSUCCESSFUL COLONIES. 59 

CHAPTER III. 

THE UNSUCCESSFUL COLONIES. 
§ 1. The Spaniards Established No Independent Colonies. 

Colonies are communities of people who have left theii 
native countries to make permanent homes in other lands. 
Such communities, independent of the aborigines in Florida, 
Mexico, and South America, were not established by Spain, 
though Columbus himself, as well as many later discoverers 
and all the conquerors, left companies of soldiers in the New 
World to hold the lands for the home country. One of the 
motives of the Spaniards who came to America was reli- 
gious, to convert the native inhabitants to the Catholic 
Christian faith of the Spanish monarchy. Another motive 
was military, to hold the lands for Spain against all other 
nations. A third motive was financial, to get gold, silver, 
and treasures, so as to return and live in splendor at home. 

The Spanish did not seek to establish themselves here by 
agriculture and industry, though the Council of the Indies, 
by the direction of the terrible Philip the Second, did send 
over to the New World a few experts to search for such 
products of the forests and fields and of native industry 
as were suitable for commerce. This Council, which had 
absolute power in all American affairs, provided that trad- 
ing-ships might sail from but two different ports of Spain, 
and then upon but two days in the year. The revenue 
ships of the monarch and the nobles could sail at any time. 
The home government ruled lands and peoples five thou- 
sand miles away without any thought of their welfare, and 
without giving them any voice whatever in their own affairs, 



60 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 2. The Spaniards Established St. Augustine and Santa Fe in 
Order to Control Subject Peoples. 

The Spaniards settled among the native inhabitants, 
often killing many of the men and marrying the women. 
For a century and more their city of Panama was the 
largest community in all the New World ; but most of its 
inhabitants were American aborigines. Though Spain ruled 
Mexico, Central America, and nearly all of South America 
until the beginning of the nineteenth century, only a small 
proportion of the population has ever been of purely Euro- 
pean descent. Even St. Augustine in Florida was scarcely 
a true colony, but was largely dependent upon the neighbor- 
ing Indians, through whom it managed to live. It never 
throve as an independent agricultural and industrial com- 
munity. Philip the Second, in sending out Menendez to 
drive the French Huguenots from Port Royal, considered 
the founding of St. Augustine, 1565, important simply for 
military and religious reasons. For much the same reasons 
Onate, a Mexican of Spanish descent, established among 
the Indians at Santa' Fe, 1598, a settlement of Spaniards 
and Mexicans. 

§ 3. The Spaniards Brought from Europe the Domestic Animals. 

Many of the Spanish invading armies brought over 
domestic animals. The bronchos, mustang's, and cayuses 
of the western plains are descended from runaways. Cattle 
also ran wild after being brought over the sea. De Soto 
himself, who equipped the finest invading expedition in 
Spanish- American history, did not forget to bring over the 
useful pig. These various animals soon made great changes 
in the mode of life of the Indian aborigines. 



SEVEKAL FRENCH COLONIES FAILED. 61 



§ 4. The Inhospitable Climate Defeated the Efforts of France 
to Establish Colonies in Canada. 

Though from the beginning their aim was true coloniza- 
tion rather than only military occupation arid financial 
return, it required a hundred years of experiment to teach 
the French how to establish colonies. Early in the six- 
teenth century several attempts at colonization were made. 
One of these, led by Baron de Lery, left domestic cattle 
upon an island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, whose descend- 
ants were found running wild several decades later by 
the next European visitors. , Cartier and Roberval made 
the greatest of these early colonizing efforts in Canada, but 
the colonists found the climate too severe and their re- 
sources too slight for success. Those whom disease, hard- 
ship, starvation, and their own quarrels spared were not 
many, and in every case all the colonists were eager to go 
back to France. From 1543 to 1588 there were no French 
colonists in Canada. 

§ 5. "War Destroyed One Colony, and Prevented the Attempt 
to Found Others. 

Ribault's colony in Florida failed partly because the 
colonists were not interested in agriculture, and were re- 
duced in numbers, health, and spirits by hardships, priva- 
tions, and the climate, but chiefly because they were not 
strong enough to resist the great Spanish crusade against 
them. After this time, not for a score of years could 
France spare any men for New World adventure. It was 
a time of foreign wars and bitter civil strife over questions 
of religion and politics. In 1588 De la Roche made an 
unsuccessful effort to establish a Canadian colony. 



62 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 6. In 1600 Spain and Portugal Possessed the Ncwr "World. 

In the latter years of the sixteenth century, England, 
in the persons of the half-brothers, Gilbert and Raleigh, 
had begun the effort to establish colonies. But the year 
1600 saw only Spain and Portugal in actual possession of 
any part of the New World. 

§ 7. The Fisheries and the Fur-trade Prospered. 

The Spanish unwillingness to attempt independent colo- 
nization, and the incapacity of the French and English to 
establish successful colonies, were in noteworthy contrast to 
the great success of the fur-traders and the fishermen. In 
the sixteenth century the Atlantic coast of North America 
was known in the western ports of Europe as the " Land of 
Cod." Wars might rage, but the people must have fish for 
Lent and for holidays. Hundreds of little boats went 
annually upon the long and dangerous voyage across the 
Atlantic. Some of the fishermen turned traders, though 
they were afraid to venture inland, getting of the Indians 
at the ocean's edge the skins of bison, beaver, and seal. The 
fishermen were exceedingly afraid of the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, imagining that demons, griffins, and various other 
monsters lived in its waters or upon its islands and shores. 
The Indians brought their furs often great distances down 
the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, or across the lands 
by way of the Mohawk valley, or even across the passes 
of the Appalachian Mountains of the Potomac region. 

§ 8. Port Royal was the First Successful French Colony. 
The period of unsuccessful colonization may fairly be 
said to have found its end in the settlement of Port Royal 



PIRACY THROVE UPON THE HIGH SEAS. 63 



(Annapolis), Nova Scotia, by Champlain in 1604, though 
this colony did not have a permanent population until 1610, 
when the first of the Jesuit missionaries came from France 
to the New World. 

§ 9. Buccaneers, Pirates, and Privateers Swarmed Upon 
the Seas. 

The seventeenth century saw upon the high seas and 
the coasts of the New World, especially in the regions 
visited by Columbus, terrible exploits of buccaneers de- 
scending by thousands upon the coast cities, and of pirates 
year after year plundering alike the public revenue gal- 
leons of the Spanish monarch and the trading caravels of 
the private merchant. It saw also the beginning, by Sir 
John Hawkins, of the slave trade, in which business 
he was opposed by Spain. In 1568, he was defeated at 
Vera Cruz in a great fight in the harbor, and escaped to 
the open sea with difficulty. Yet the trade prospered, and 
those who grew rich by it w T ere highly honored. Red men 
were kidnapped in America, and black men in Africa. The 
seventeenth century saw what to us seems the singular 
spectacle of kings authorizing privateering against the trad- 
ing-ships of nations with whom they were at peace. The 
plundering of Spanish vessels making for the home-country 
across the waters of the Spanish Main, and descents upon 
Spanish sea-coast towns in the Old World and in the New, 
were called by Englishmen, " singeing the beard of the 
King of Spain." After the great calamity to Spain of the 
destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588 by Hawkins, 
Raleigh, Drake, and their compeers, buccaneering and piracy 
grew worse. For the next two centuries might alone made 



64 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



right upon the high seas. Our own nation, after it had 
won its independence, destroyed piracy, and set free the 
trade of America and Europe from this blood-red toll. 




Defeat of Hawkins by the Spaniards at Vera Cruz, 1568. 



§ 10. The First Adventurers in the New World were 
Men of Surpassing Courage. 

The adventurous souls who won the New World to 
European civilization were, some of them, gentlemen of the 
nobility, others scholars, others mere hirelings in the pay 
of commercial companies, and still others thieves, cut- 



AN AGE OF UNIVERSAL COURAGE. 65 

throats, and scoundrels from the prisons of Spain, France, 
and England; but their courage and fortitude may be 
judged from the fact that they often crossed the Atlantic in 
boats so small that they could lean over the sides and wash 
their hands in the water of the ocean. In boats of but 
twenty tons, and even less, they brought over horses and 
cattle. The greatest ship in the fleet of Menendez was of 
but seven hundred tons' burden. We hear of no other 
;hip of equal size that crossed the Atlantic in two centuries 
of sea-adventure. Drake had but fifty-seven sailors in his 
ship that sailed through all the " Seven Seas." The Span- 
ish grandee and priest, the English scholar and sailor, the 
Italian geographer, the Portuguese navigator, the pirate 
Moor, and the French soldier, who crossed the seas in those 
days, all held life cheap and ambition clear. They were 
brave in every peril, and faced starvation, storm, battle, 
disease, and labor with unflinching courage. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What motives led the Spaniards to come to America ? 

2. What order regarding trade was issued by the Council of the 
Indies ? 

3. What was the character of the population of Panama ? 

4. For what reasons were St. Augustine and Santa Fe founded ? 

5. What people brought over to America the domestic animals ? 

6. What causes prevented the success of the early French colonies ? 

7. How was the French colonization affected by the European wars ? 

8. In 1600 what nations were in actual possession of New World 
lands ? 

9. What were the fortunes of the fishermen and fur-traders ? 

10. By what routes did the Indians travel to deliver their furs ? 

11. What and where was the first successful French colony ? 

12. Were the high seas safe for peaceful merchants during these 
times ? 



66 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



13. What exploits were called "singeing the beard of the King of 
Spain' ' ? 

14. How large were the ships that crossed the ocean in the fifteenth, 
sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries ? 

15. What was the character of the adventurers ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Brady's Colonial Fights and Fighters, Part II. : The Buccaneers. 
Thwaites's Colonies, Chap. II. , §§ 11-13 : The French Colonies. 
Fiske's History of U. S., Chap. V., §§ 30-31 : Drake and Hawkins. 
Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. I., Barlowe, Raleigh, French Colonies, Fall 

of Spain. 
Hart's Source Readers, Vol. I., Nos. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. Piracy. 
Old South Leaflets. Nos. 89, 122 : Colonization. 

Channing's Student's History, pp. 40-52 : France and Spain : Raleigh. 
Fiske's Discovery of America. 
See also references at ends of Chapters I. and II. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS. 

1. The Beginnings of Negro Slavery. 

2. The Council of the Indies. 

3. Philip n and Charles V. 

4. The French Fur-trade. 

5. The Port Royal, Nova Scotia, Colony. 

6. Sir John Hawkins and His Coat-of-arms. 

7. Sir Henry Morgan, Buccaneer. 

8. The Spanish Grandee and His American Estates. 

9. The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Ships. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1492. Columbus discovers America. 

1497. Cabot discovers North America. 

1565. The Spanish settle in St. Augustine among the Indians. 

1585. The English attempt to establish a colony on Roanoke Island. 

1588. The English navy overthrows the Spanish Armada. 

1598. The Spanish settle in Santa Fe. 

1604. The French establish Port Royal (Annapolis). 



VOYAGES A^'D EXPLORATIONS. 67 

CHAPTER IV. 

LATER VOYAGES AND EXPLORATIONS. 
§ 1. Gosnold Tried to Establish Colonies, but Failed. 

Sir Walter Raleigh had several associates in his 
persistent attempts to establish a colony in the New World. 
Among them was his half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 
who was lost in a storm at sea in 1583. Another was Sir 
Richard Grenville, who was mortally wounded in a battle 
with the Spaniards. It was a glorious death, for with six 
ships he nearly succeeded in overcoming fifty-three ships of 
the enemy, 1591. A third associate was Bartholomew 
Gosnold, who in 1602 entered Massachusetts Bay, and ex- 
plored the islands and inlets of all the region. He planted 
a small colony on Cuttyhunk Island. Like all the earlier 
English colonies, this proved a failure. In 1606, Gosnold 
made another effort, and took colonists out to Virginia. 
Against his advice they settled at Jamestown for a brief 
time. He died there in the awful summer of 1607. 

Gosnold's voyages were very useful in affording informa- 
tion to guide later voyagers and colonizers. He was the first 
colonizing navigator to cross the Atlantic by a course almost 
due west from England, and made the voyage westward in 
1602 in but eighteen days, scarcely half the ordinary time 
by way of the Azores. The successful Jamestown colony 
was four months in crossing the sea. The older and 
longer track of Verrazzano, Cartier, Menendez, Raleigh, 
and Smith is that still followed by many private sailing 
and steam yachts, by tramp steamers, and by several com- 
mercial lines to the Mediterranean and to Africa. 



68 



DISCOVEKY ASV SETTLEMENT. 



J 2. Hudson Explored the Hudson River, and Perished in 
Hudson Bay. 

Another Englishman whose name is memorable as a sea- 
captain and discoverer was 
Henry Hudson, who made voy- 
ages for the English in 1607 
to the waters of the North 
Atlantic near Labrador, and 
in 1608 to Nova Zembla. Then 
the Dutch East India Company, 
in rivalry with the Plymouth 
Company of England, organized 
a branch known as the Dutch 
West India Company, and em- 
ployed Hudson, who in 1609 
explored the beautiful river 
that bears his name. A year 
later he discovered Hudson 
Strait and the great Hudson Bay where he passed the 
winter. The terrible hardships of the voyage caused his 
crew to mutiny, and he was set adrift in a small sailboat 
with his son John, and a few of the weakest old sailors. 
They were never heard of again; and the immense and 
awful bay that he discovered, is his grave, bearing his name 
as a perpetual memorial to a brave and useful life. 




Henry Hudson. 

English Sailor. Exact Dates of 
Birth and Death Unknown. 



§ 3. Great Commercial Companies were Organized. 

It was Peter Minuit, a German sailor employed in New 
World adventure by the Dutch, who named the Hudson 
River the North River, the tidal stream between Manhattan 
and Long Islands the East River, and the Delaware River 



GEEAT TRADING COMPANIES WERE FORMED, 



69 




The Half Moon, Hudson's Ship, in the Hudson River. 

the South River. With him as leader the Dutch Company 
hoped to develop all this region. But Minuit saw in the 
statesmanship of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden better 
opportunities, and changed to the employment of the Swedish 
West India Company. The ties of nationality were weak. 
The Xew World offered its lures of wealth and strange 
adventure ; and trading and fishing companies bent upon 
money-making found sea-captains ready to accept employ- 
ment under any flag. In the seventeenth century English 
and Dutch sailors had taken the place of the great Italian 
and Portuguese sailors of earlier times. Some companies 
became enormously rich and powerful ; notably the English 
East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and 
Hudson's Bay Company. In some respects they resembled 
the great business corporations of our own times. 



70 



DISCOVEKV AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 4. John Smith Explored Virginia, and Made a Map 
of New England. 

To this same period belongs John Smith, one of the great- 
est men in our early colonial history. He had been a bold 
adventurer from his boyhood, lighting in France and Hun- 
gary, taken captive in 
Turkey, and traveling 
through the Eastern 
Mediterranean coun- 
tries. He came to Vir- 
ginia in 1606 with Gos- 
nokl. Again in 1607 
he came over to James- 
town, and explored the 
rivers of Virginia and 
the Avhole of Chesa- 
peake Bay. In 1614, 
with two ships fitted 
out by London mer- 
chants, he explored the 
American coast, and 
gave to New England 
the name it still bears. 
Smith was one of the best early map-makers. He was also 
an enthusiastic pamphlet- writer, and in later years in Eng- 
land did much to promote colonization by his brilliant 
accounts of the conditions of life in the New World. In 
1616 King James gave him the title of " Admiral of New 
England." But for an unfortunate injury to his eyes, while 
exploring in America, John Smith would have done far 
more for the new England over the seas. 




John Smith, born I 559 ; died 163 1 
Russia; Governor, Virginia. 



THEKE IS NOW NO "UNKNOWN WOULD." 71 



§ 5. The Northwest Passage was Discovered in 1852. 

Among the many adventurers of this same period who 
were seeking " the northwest passage to Asia," were 
Richard Chancellor, who in 1554 sailing eastward found 
the White Sea, north of Russia, and John Davis, who 
discovered Davis Strait in 1585. Two hundred and sixty- 
five years were to elapse after Davis's time, and three - 
hundred and fifty-eight after that of Columbus, 1492, be- 
fore the useless sea-route to China by the north was under- 
stood. Robert McClure completed in 1850-2 the knowledge 
of the northwest passage, and received the great reward of 
the British Parliament for his accomplishment, twenty-five 
thousand dollars. 

Meantime in 1728 a Danish explorer, Vitus Bering, in 
the employ of Russia, had found the sea-channel that sepa- 
rates the New World from Asia. Bering, like Hudson and 
that great explorer, Sir John Franklin, whose Arctic voy- 
ages in the first half of the nineteenth century were the 
astonishment of the world, died in the far North, a martyr 
to man's zeal to know the earth on which we live. 

Thus Columbus, the Cabots, Magellan, Verrazzano, Drake, 
Hudson, Bering, McClure, and many other heroes of the 
sea, the famous and the forgotten, revealed to mankind the 
oceans and the coasts of the New World, encircling it by 
their links of discovery until the chain of knowledge was 
complete. Discovery and exploration are still going on. 
Very recently we have learned much regarding the Antarc- 
tic Sea. Now we know something about nearly every part 
of the earth upon which we live, including forested high- 
lands of Central Africa, the secluded plateaus of Central Asia, 
and the frigid regions about the North and South Poles. 



72 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



The exploration of the land in the New World was a 
vastly greater task than voyaging upon unknown waters 
to dangerous coasts, for to the rigors of climate, — heat and 
cold, fierce storm and sweltering calm, — to hunger and to 
solitude, were added perils of wild men and wild beasts, 
and of mountains, forests, ,and swamps. 

§ 6. The French Explored the Great Lakes and the 
Mississippi River. 

After the Spaniards under De Leon and De Soto, the next 
great land explorers in North America were the French- 




Champlain Fighting the Iroquois. 



men, Champlain, Joliet, and Marquette. Champlain ex- 
plored Canada, fighting the Iroquois in 1609, and discover- 
ing Lake Champlain in 1610. Lewis Joliet was a native- 



THE FRENCH EXPLORED THE LAND. 73 



born Canadian of French descent, who in 1673 went down 
the Mississippi River by canoe as far as the month .of 
the Arkansas River, and who proved by his voyage that the 
river empties into the Gulf of Mexico and not into the 
Pacific. This exploration completed De Soto's discovery of 
more than a hundred years before, 1541. With Joliei? 
went Jacques Marquette, known as Pere Marquette, a 
Jesuit priest from France, who on his return established 
Kaskaskia, for a loug time the most important town in 
the Mississippi valley. Marquette and Joliet also ex- 
plored the six Great Lakes that are so important and so 
beautiful a feature of the surface of North America. No 
other continent has inland fresh- 
water seas of such extent. 

§ 7. La Salle for France Endea- 
vored to Establish, a Colony, 
but Failed. 

The French gave to America 
another great land-explorer, 
La Salle, who was a Jesuit 
priest like Marquette and many 
other brave adventurers in New 
France. La Salle explored the 
Lake region and made the first 
voyage down the Mississippi to Robert Cave,ier de la Salle - 

its mouth in 1682, the same Born ' ' 64 + 3; , dledl ! 687 ' Exp,orer; 

' trader : colonizer. 

year in which Pennsylvania was 

founded. In 1684 La Salle brought from France a com- 
pany of settlers, and tried to found a colony at the mouth 
of the Mississippi. Failing to find the mouth of the river, 




74 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

he lost the confidence of his companions, who murdered 
him in Texas while trying to reach the river overland. 
These explorations by La Salle in the interest of the fur- 
trade supported the claims of France to the region first 
visited by De Soto. 

§ 8. The Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains were Explored. 

The first explorers to reach the Rocky Mountains in the 
north were the La Verendryes, father and sons, Frenchmen, 
who explored the Lake of the Woods, 1732, and Lake 
Winnipeg, 1733, and in 1742 by way of the Upper Missouri 
pushed westward to the mountains. Not until the United 
States was a nation did explorers visit the region again, 
when Lewis and Clark, sent out by Congress at President 
Jefferson's desire, journeyed from the Mississippi to the 
mouth of the Oregon upon the Pacific coast, 1803-6. 

A hundred years after the expeditions of the La Veren- 
dryes, an American, John C. Fremont, in 1842-6 explored 
the interior region of the Pocky Mountains and California, 
fairly completing our knowledge of the inland part of the 
New World which is now the Continental United States. 

§ 9. England and France Increased Their Influence in the 
New "World. 

It is interesting to note that the seafaring peoples of 
Italy and Portugal first, and then of England, contributed 
to the world most of the great sea-discoverers, Da Gama, 
Columbus, the Cabots, Cabral, Vespucius, Cortereal, Magel- 
lan, Verrazzano, Paleigh, Smith, Davis, Hudson, and Mc- 
Clure, while the military peoples of Spain first, and then 
France, contributed the great land-explorers, Balboa, De 



THE STRUGGLE EOR NEW AVOKLD LANDS. 75 



Soto, Cortes, Pizarro, Cartier, Coronado, Champlain, Joliet, 
Marquette, La Salle, La Verendrye. 

We shall see, as we study the political history of North 
America, how vitally these discoveries affected the future 
course of events. 

§ 10. Pope Alexander VI Divided America bet-ween Portugal 

and Spain. 

In 1493, after the discoveries by Da Gaina and Columbus, 
Pope Alexander VI divided the New World between Spain 
and Portugal by a line drawn north and south one hundred 
leagues west of the Azores. Later the line was changed 
so that Portugal was to possess Brazil and all the world 
east of the new line three hundred and seventy leagues 
west of the Azores, and Spain all the world west except 
Brazil. It was the political and commercial rivalry be- 
tween Spain and Portugal that led to Magellan's voyage 
around the earth, for, disappointed by the small rewards 
for his great services in the Moluccas, he had given up his 
native country of Portugal and had gone into the service 
of Spain. He persuaded the Spanish king that the Moluc- 
cas could be reached by going westward as well as by going 
eastward. 

§ 11. The Claims of European Nations Conflicted. 

This partition of the New World between the two 
nations of the Spanish Peninsula was never satisfactory- to 
France, England, or Holland. The Spanish claimed under 
the title of Florida, which had been explored by De Leon, 
De Soto, and Coronado, all the continent of North America 
except the sea-coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. When 



76 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



-^\j NORTH AMERICA/^/ ^\ Q 




THE CLAIMS 

OF 

SPAI¥ 

1600 



coast and the St. Lawrence 
coveries and explorations 
of Verrazzano, C artier, 
Champlain, Joliet, and 
La Salle. England chal- 
lenged the claims of both 
Spain and France by vir- 
tue of the discoveries of 
the Cabots and the ex- 
peditions of Raleigh. At 
the end of the sixteenth 
century the region of the 
present United States was 
known by the Spanish as 
Florida, and by the Eng- 
lish as Virginia, and early 



C o 1 i g n y, Admiral of 
France, an official like 
our American Secretary 
of the Navy, sent out the 
Huguenot colonies to 
Florida, Menendez of 
Spain considered the pres- 
ence of the French an in- 
vasion of Spanish terri- 
tory. Portugal claimed 
Brazil and the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence because of 
the voyages of Cabral 
and Cortereal. France 
claimed the Atlantic 
valley by right of the dis- 




THE CLAIMS 

OF 

ENGLAND 

1600 



THE CONFLICTING CLAIMS. 



7? 



in the seventeenth cen- 
tury by the French as 
New France. Queen 
Elizabeth declared in her 
brilliant way that only 
occupation of the New 
World by actual colonies 
could make the Spanish 
claims valid. At this 
time Holland was prepar- 
ing to dispute the claims 
of all the other nations, 
and to secure possession 
of the Hudson valley for 
two generations. 



-*X$ NORTH. AMERTCV^j 




THE CLAIMS 

OF 

PRANCE 

1650 



'"[$ NORTH AMERICA^) 



§ 12. The Present Possessions of England. 

Id the four hundred 
years since the time of 
Columbus, seven Euro- 
pean nations have claimed 
territories in the New 
World, — Spain, Eng- 
land, Portugal, France, 
Holland, Sweden, and 
Russia. In 1900 England 
only had any territory 
in North America, and 
England, France, and 
Holland together had 
only Guiana in South 
America. Great wars 




DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



have been fought in Europe as well as in America to 
decide what nation was to be supreme here. The final result 
of all the disputes and conflicts was to establish here a 
nation with English speech, laws, customs, and institutions. 
The history of settlement in the New World was the his- 
tory of the expansion of the Old, with England finally domi- 
nant north of the Rio Grande River and Spain south until 
a century ago. In 1822 Spain lost Mexico, the last of her 
possessions upon the continents of America, and in 1898 
Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1783 England lost the United 
States, retaining Canada until now. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What was the success of Gosnold's attempts to establish colonies ? 

2. For what reasons were his voyages useful ? 

3. What were the achievements of Hudson upon the sea ? 

4. Give an account of John Smith as an explorer. 

5. Who finally discovered the " Northwest Passage " ? 

6. What were the discoveries of Bering and Franklin ? 

7. Give accounts of Cham plain, Joliet, and Marquette. 

8. Who made the first voyage down the Mississippi River ? 

9. What Frenchmen explored the Rocky Mountains ? Americans ? 

10. Name the sea-faring peoples of Europe, and tell who their adven- 
turers were. Name the military peoples, and who their adventurers were. 

11. Between what nations did Pope Alexander VI divide the world ? 

12. What was the reason for the voyage of Magellan ? 

13. Explain the conflicts of the claims of European nations. 

14. What nations have claimed territories in the New World ? 

15. What European nations now have New World possessions ? 

16. Explain the saying, "The history of colonization in America is 
the history of the expansion of Europe.'' 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Woods's Captain John Smith. 

Consult the standard encyclopaedias : note especially, Dutch West India 
Company. English East India Company. 



LATER VOYAGES AND EXPLORATIONS. 79 



Parkman's La Salle : Pioneers, Chaps. IV. and IX. : Chaniplain. 
Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. I., Chap. V. : Marquette, La Salle. 
Thwaites's Colonies, Chaps. II., III. : Voyagers, Discoverers. 
Hart's Source Book, No. 6 : Champlain. 
Bancroft's History of the United States, Vol. I. 



TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION BY INDI- 
VIDUALS OR BY THE CLASS. 

1. The Various Routes of Columbus, Verrazzano, Cabot, Champlain. 
Gosnold, across the Atlantic. 

2. The Life and the Death of Henry Hudson. 

3. The Early Life of John Smith. 

4. John Smith as a Pamphleteer and Map-maker, together with his 
lectures in England regarding New England, especially with reference to 
his influence among the Puritans. 

5. Vitus Bering : David McClure : Sir John Franklin. 

6. The Jesuits in America. 

7. Pere Marquette : Pere Hennepin. 

8. La Salle : Trader, Explorer, Colonizer. 

9. The Expedition of Lewis and Clarke. 

10. General John C. Fremont, Explorer. 

11. The Exploration of Canada. 

12. The Line of Demarcation. 

13. The Opinion of Queen Elizabeth regarding New World Possessions 

14. How Spain Lost South and Central America. 

15. Modern Ocean-routes. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1602. Gosnold's colony remains two months on Cuttyhunk Island. 

1607. Gosnold dies in Virginia. 

1607. John Smith goes with a colony to Virginia. 

1609. Hudson explores the Hudson Eiver. 

1614. John Smith explores the New England coast. 

1626. Minuit begins his explorations. 

1682. La Salle explores the Mississippi Eiver. 

1728. Bering finds the passage between Asia and North America. 

1742. Verendrye discovers the Rocky Mountains. 

1852. McClure discovers the "Northwest Passage." 



80 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE ENGLISH IN VIBGINIA. 



§ 1. Before 1607 Every English Colony was Unsuccessful. 

Before the year 1607 the record of colonization in 
North America was extremely discouraging. St. Augustine 
in Florida and Santa Fe in New Mexico alone had any con- 
siderable number of European settlers. Nor were these 
colonies self-supporting. A score or more of systematic 
attempts on the part of England and France to establish 
colonies had failed. Even Port Royal had no inhabitants 
in its buildings erected in 1604. Here and there in Canada 
were a few sheds and tents of fur-traders ; here and there 

on the coast were a few 
fishermen's huts, for re- 
sort in time of storm, or 
for a little trade with 
the Indians, of fish or 
trinkets for furs. 

§ 2. Raleigh Transferred 
His Rights to Great 
Land Companies. 

Sir Walter Raleigh, 
who had been Queen 
Elizabeth's favorite in 
her lifetime, was con- 
fined in the Tower of London by her successor, King 
James I, and the great energies of the prime mover in 
English efforts to colonize America were turned, for lack 
of any other enterprise, to the writing of a history of the 




Pocahontas Rescuing Captain Smith. 



RALEIGH SURRENDERED VIRGINIA TO OTHERS. 



81 



world. Yet to the inspiration of this great sea-captain, 
statesman, and writer, the world owes the presence of 
the English race in our land. Raleigh would have suc- 
ceeded with his Roanoke colonies but for the great Span- 
ish war then raging on the high seas. Europe owes to 
Raleigh the potato, first brought to Ireland in 1584, by 




Making a Home in the New World at Jamestown, Virginia, 1607. 



White, governor of Roanoke. Thomas Hariot, of the same 
colony, one of the inventors of algebra, brought over other 
new plants also. Tobacco, however, another strange Ameri- 
can product, had been introduced into the Old World imme- 
diately after the Spanish conquests. At first it was thought 
to be a wonderful food and a panacea for disease, though 
the Indians themselves used it rather as a ceremony than 
as a habit. After the failure of Raleigh's colonies and his 
own loss of political power, he transferred his grants of land 



82 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



to great companies in London and Plymouth. The coloni- 
zation of the New World was too great a financial under- 
taking for one man, and had bankrupted Raleigh, who had 
spent $200,000 upon his ventures, an amount greater than 
$2,000,000 nowadays. The London Company included a 
hundred men of rank and wealth and many others besides. 

§3. The London Company Established Jamestown, and John 
Smith Became Governor. 

The London Company sent out to the region of their 
patent one hundred and five men, who settled at James- 
town in 1607. The charters of both these companies pro- 
vided that the colonists in America should have the same 
rights and privileges as Englishmen in the home country. 
Successful colonization began in America with the recogni- 
tion of civil rights and personal liberty. The first year 
was a very hard one. No private property was permitted, 
and they ate and were clothed from the common stores. 
The plan of co-operative ownership of land and goods and 
of co-operative labor failed. Most of the colonists were 
lazy and shiftless. They spent no little time in a vain 
search for gold. But for the presence, tact, and energy of 
John Smith, who even then, despite his great experience, 
was but twenty-five years old, the colony would have failed. 

Smith was a diplomat as well as a fighter. He coaxed 
and frightened the Indians into supplying the settlers with 
food. In a trip up the Chickahominy River, while trying 
to find the northwest passage to Asia, he was rescued by 
Pocahontas, the daughter of an Indian chief, Powhatan, 
from being killed by the natives. She offered further to 
protect the wonderful white soldier by adopting him into 
her own tribe as a brother. Though he declined this offer, 



THE COLONISTS ESTABLISHED HOMES. 



83 



lie gladly accepted the friendly aid of the great chief of 
thirty tribes. But with all Smith v s efforts for the colonists, 
half the men died in the first four months. The record of 
the second year was rather better, partly because Smith was 
made governor of the colony. 

§ 4. Under Dale the Colony Prospered. 
In 1609, the year that Hudson discovered the river and 
Champlain the lake bearing their names, five hundred more 
colonists were sent 
out by the London 
Company. A worse 
lot of men could 
hardly have been 
brought together. 
The gentlemen 
among them would 
hot work because 
they had beenbrought 
up in idleness, and 
the freed convicts 
were in many cases 
incorrigibly bad. 
They plundered the Indians, and quarreled among them- 
selves. Soon there were but one hundred survivors among 
them all. Smith was in England, trying to persuade the 
London Company that the colony must be supplied with 
all the necessities of life until it was self-supporting. In 
this he was successful, for the London Company was 
primarily bent upon making a financial success of the 
colony as a business enterprise and saw the importance 
of a successful beginning. In 1611 came Lord Delaware 




84 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



with supplies and provisions. He left Sir Thomas Dale to 
govern the colony. Communism was abolished. Dale 
was a despot, and sent to the galleys the men who 
would not work. A few pounds of tobacco shipped to 
England were sold at a very high price, and the colonists 
found in tobacco their salvation, for it gave them em- 
ployment and wealth. With this improvement, men began 
to come over with their wives. To this time only the 
Spaniards — and but few of them — had ever brought 
women in their companies from Europe. With their 
wives and children about them, the English at James- 
town began to feel at home in the New World. The Lon- 
don Company supported them generously. The first ten 
years of the colony cost $500,000, — a vast sum in those 
days, when all England had less people than live in London 
now. This sum was never repaid. 

§ 5. Tobacco Made the Fortune of Jamestown. 
The new and better class of people caused the community 
to grow, not only in numbers, but also in wealth. They 
shipped to England, in 1619, forty thousand pounds of 
tobacco, in 1640 one and a half million pounds, and in 
1670 twelve million pounds, though their income grew by 
no means as fast as these weights indicate, for owing to 
the increased supply the price of tobacco steadily fell. 
At first the settlers dreamed of finding gold, and wasted 
their lives in their dreaming. Later they turned to work. 
John Rolfe, who married Pocahontas, was the first leader in 
tobacco raising and selling. By following Indian methods of 
tobacco culture he made a fortune while the other settlers 
made good livings. The tobacco-habit spread with amazing 
rapidity through the world, and made a great market. 



SUCCESS WAS DUE TO SMITH AND DALE. 85 



§ 6. The Colonists Lived Peaceably with Their Indian 
Neighbors. 

It is due to John Smith and to Thomas Dale that the 

voyage of the Susan Constant with two little companion 

boats to Virginia is as important in the history of the 

American people as was that later voyage of the Mayflower 

to Massachusetts Bay. Without them Jamestown, like all 

earlier English colonies, would have been a failure. They 

made the colonists keep peace with the Indians and with 

each other. It was the success of Jamestown that led the 

Pilgrims to undertake their settlement here. 

§ 7. Democracy and Slavery Began in 1619. 

In 1619, so well had the colonists learned habits of 
thrift and principles of order and good government, that 
a new charter was granted by the London Company to 
them, establishing the House of Burgesses. Each of the 
eleven settlements sent to this House two representatives 
as members, thus beginning democratic self-government. 
In that same year Rolfe relates that "a Dutch manne of 
war came in and sold us 20 negars." There were already 
white bond-servants in the colony, — redemptioners and in- 
dentured apprentices, — who were practically slaves for 
varying terms of years. Negro slavery and white republi- 
canism began at the same time in Virginia. Indeed, the 
former was at that time even more common in the world 
than the latter. Our ancestors were rather better than the 
other people of their time, but they were by no means as 
intelligent, generous, and democratic as are Americans of 
the twentieth century. From Virginia both slavery and 
democracy spread until, two and a half centuries later, they 
came to that inevitable and fearful collision, our Civil War. 



86 DISCOVERY A^D SETTLEMENT. 



§ 8. The English King Sent Over Bad Rulers. 
In 162-1 King James, no believer in popular self-govern- 
ment, broke up the London Company which he called a 
" seminary of sedition " and annulled its charter, because he 
considered it too liberal in its policy. He hated the Vir- 
ginians, partly because he hated their tobacco, for he was 
the author of the famous " Counterblast Tobacco," which 
served a useful purpose as a warning against the un- 
doubtedly dangerous results of its excessive use. Fortu- 
nately for the colony he died the next year, before all his 
plans were complete for establishing a tyranny in " the king- 
dom of Virginia." James was the first of the English 
Stuarts ; their later history as a royal family is one of the 
most interesting stories in the annals of the mother-country. 
James's son, Charles I, who came to the throne in 1625, 
was not more friendly to Virginia than was his father, but 
he had so much trouble in England with Parliament, that 
he had very little time to spend in devising plans against 
liberty in Virginia. In 1629 he sent over as governor 
Sir John Harvey, who stole money and tried to steal lands. 

After six years of Harvey's rule, the people rose up and 
put him out of office. Because of the constant popular 
agitation Charles dared not keep him longer in Virginia and 
sent a former governor, Francis Wyatt, who renewed his 
previous good reputation. From 1635 to 1642 the House 
of Burgesses ruled the colony, which continued to increase 
in numbers and in wealth. Then, in 1642, came over a new 
governor, William Berkeley, an aristocrat and royalist, who 
did not believe in popular liberty, but, to use his own lan- 
guage, " thanked God that there were no free schools and 
printing-presses in Virginia." 



DEMOCRACY GAVE WAY TO ARISTOCKACY. SI 

§ 9. Virginia Became Aristocratic and Agricultural. 

Meantime, tobacco was exhausting the soil of the old 
settlements, and the planters began to enlarge their plan- 
tations so as to have new soil for the weed. The smaller 
farms were added to the larger. All the navigable river- 
fronts were taken up. There were no large towns, but 
the people were thinly scattered over great areas. The 
great planters needed cheap labor, and to get it secured for 
their plantations more and more Negro slaves, white bond- 
servants, and men and women, boys and girls, kidnapped in 
England. Among the bond-servants there came over from 
England many ministers and teachers, for in the mother- 
country at this time such persons were held in low esteem. 
Only the rectors of rich parishes and the foremost profes- 
sors of the great universities and schools were honored. 

Virginia was already aristocratic in its tone, with a few 
families exercising most of the power, when in 1649 
Charles I was beheaded by the Puritans, and his Cavalier 
friends began to look outside of England for a land in which 
they would be happier than under the rule of Oliver Crom- 
well, the great Puritan general and statesman, who main- 
tained the republican Commonwealth from 1653 to 1658. 
Thousands of the Cavaliers sold their possessions for what 
money they could get, and went to Virginia. The colony 
became more aristocratic in tone than before. The whole 
region had always been loyal to the king, whose party the 
colonists favored rather than that of Cromwell and Par- 
liament. The squires from England founded the F. F. V.'s, 
— the First Families of Virginia, — intermarrying with 
the members of the old aristocracy, in which the Rolfes, 
descended from Pocahontas, were the leaders. 



55 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

§10. Berkeley Ruled Tyrannically. 

Through nearly all this period Berkeley was the ruler, 
1642-52, and 1660-76. For the last sixteen years he 
rilled the House of Burgesses with his friends, and then 
adjourned it from year to year, without allowing it to make 
any laws, and made a farce of popular self-government. 
When the Indians became dangerous, Berkeley refused to 
send an army against them. Though John Smith himself 
had protested against it in his time, the Indians had been 
taught the use of fire-arms. Young Nathaniel Bacon led 
an expedition of volunteers against the Indians, and de- 
feated them, whereupon Berkeley attacked him. At this 
crisis Bacon, who represented the people's cause of liberty 
and just government, suddenly died. Berkeley ruthlessly 
hanged twenty of the leaders of the volunteers who had 
proceeded to raise an insurrection against his tyranny and 
against the social and political abuses of the time. For this 
inhuman severity Charles II recalled him in disgrace, 1676. 

§ 11. Virginia's Planters -were Lovers of Liberty. 

In this period, according to Berkeley's own report to the 
king, there were forty thousand people in Virginia, of 
whom two thousand were colored slaves, and six thousand 
were white bond-servants. The actual numbers were prob- 
ably somewhat less. The English navigation laws were 
illiberal, like those of all nations of the time ; they required 
the colonists to ship their tobacco in English ships, and to 
take the pay in English goods. This prevented the devel- 
opment of a commercial class in Virginia. The poor, espe- 
cially the landless poor, had few rights. Yet, despite all 
its social ills, the colony prospered. From the beginning 



VIRGINIA. 89 



there was in Virginia a free-handed hospitality, and the 
ruling class were vigorous opponents of the encroachments 
of king and royal governor upon their liberties. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. In 1607 what were the established colonies in our country ? 

2. What Europeans were there in Canada in 1607 ? 

3. Why were Raleigh's colonies unsuccessful ? 

4. What did the charter of the London Company provide as to the 
rights and liberties of colonists ? 

5. Who was the first successful leader in an English colony ? What 
services did he render ? 

6. What did Dale do for the Jamestown colony ? 

7. Was the London Company just and fair in its treatment of the 
colony ? Give an account of its dealings. 

8. What agricultural product saved the colony from failure ? 

9. What were the early relations between the Virginia colonists and 
the Indians ? , 

10. What was the House of Burgesses ? 

11. What bond-servants and slaves were there in Virginia ? 

12. Why did the king annul the charter of the London Company ? 

13. What manner of governors ruled in Virginia from 1624 to 1676 ? 

14. Why did the Cavaliers of England leave home ? Why did they 
select Virginia as their new home ? 

15. What was the result of the Indians learning to use fire-arms ? 

16. Why was the royal governor recalled in 1676, after the re- 
bellion ? 

17. What were the characteristics of Virginia in 1676 ? Was it com- 
mercial or agricultural ? Was it democratic or aristocratic ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. I., Part III., Chap. VII. : The Virginia 
Plantation; Part IV., Chap. IX., pp. 200-252: Virginia; Bacon, 
Berkeley, etc. 

Thwaites's Colonies, Chap. IV. : Virginia, pp. 64-80. 

Brown's English Politics in Virginia ; also, First Republic in America. 

Smith's Colonies : Indians ; Virginia. 

Piske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, for Virginia especially. 



90 DISCO VERY AtfD SETTLEMENT. 



Green's Short History of the English People : James I. Charles I, etc. 

Harper's Encyclopaedia of United States History : Plymouth Company. 

Consult the standard encyclopedias: Gosnold, Smith, Dale, London Com- 
pany, Hudson, Powhatan, Tobacco, Pocahontas, Slavery, Berkeley, 
House of Burgesses, Oliver Cromwell. 



ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION BY 
INDIVIDUALS OR THE CLASS. 

1 . French Colonies in Canada. 

2. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh. 

3. The England of Queen Elizabeth. 

4. The Money-making Purposes of the London Company. 

5. The Powhatan Confederacy. 

6. Tobacco in Europe, and its Steady and Continuous Fall in Price. 

7. The F. F. V.'s of Virginia. 

8. Bond-servants. 

9. The Strange Character of King James I. 

10. Virginia Plantations. 

11. Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan Commonwealth in their Influ- 
ence upon Cavalier Emigration from England. 

12. The Career of Pocahontas in England. 

13. Charles 1 and Charles II. 

14. Navigation Acts. 

15. The House of Burgesses in Virginia as a School of Liberty. 

16. The Changes from Communism to Severalty in Virginia, and from 
Democracy to Aristocracy : Causes, Results. 

17. How Chief-justice Popham, who Wickedly Condemned Raleigh to 
Death, became Chief Beneficiary of his Virginia Patents. 

18. The Sons of Gilbert in the Plymouth Company. 



ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1606. Gosnold' s colony in Virginia fails. 

1607-10. Smith makes a success of the London Company's colony. 

1609 and 1611. Large additions are made to the colony. 

1619. Tobacco becomes a large crop, and Negroes are imported as slaves. 

1624. The London Company is broken up. 

1676. Governor Berkeley is recalled in disgrace. 



THE DESIRE FOR LIBERTY. 91 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE ENGLISH IN NEW ENGLAND. 

§ 1. Plymouth Colony Secured a Patent from the London 
Company. 

Plymouth Colony differed in many respects from the 
colony at Jamestown. The people who first settled in New 
England came over not to find gold, but to secure religious 
and political liberty. They received no great additions in 
colonists sent out by the managing Company, which being 
poor itself was able to contribute in all to the support of 
the colony but $35,000. This Company was indeed not 
the Plymouth Company, which had secured a patent to the 
northern part of Raleigh's lands, but a group of friends of 
the colonists, who had no charter, but secured for them a 
patent from the London Company to settle in Virginia. 
They suffered even more than the first settlers at James- 
town, for the New England climate was far harder to 
endure than that of Virginia. Lastly, there were no jail- 
birds and no fine gentlemen in Plymouth ; the colonists 
were all poor and all good citizens. 

§ 2. The Plymouth Company Founded No Successful Colony. 

The Plymouth Company undertook the colonization of 
the northern section of Virginia. In 1607, a year after 
John Smith's first voyage to Jamestown, and the very year 
of the establishment of the colony there, it sent out a 
company which landed in Maine but refused to stay there, 
returning to England within a year. Even the colony 
that bore its name was not sent out by it, but received 



92 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



a grant fiom the London Company. The later Massa- 
chusetts Bay colony was established by a company, inde- 
pendent of the Plymouth Company, which was dissolved 
by Parliament in 1635, for it was so successful in the fish- 
eries as to invite great 
enmity. 

§3. Strife in England 
Caused a Pilgrimage. 

For a hundred years 
before King James came 
to the throne, 1603, there 
had been growing in Eng- 
land a party dissatisfied 
with conditions in the 
Established Church. In 
the time of " Good Queen 
Bess " and the Spanish 
Armada, questions of re- 
ligion were also questions 
of patriotism. The mon- 
arch was head of both 
Church and State, and 
religion was maintained by the government. England was 
Protestant, while Spain was Catholic. But when James 
came to the throne, the Protestants began to disagree among 
themselves. The great body of the people felt well satis- 
fied with things as they were, but there was one consid- 
erable party that favored change. The discontented people 
who wished to purify religious affairs were called Puritans. 
Three decades later in Cromwell's time they accomplished 
their purpose, and set up a Puritan Republic. Among the 




THE SEPARATISTS FLED TO HOLLAND. 



93 



Puritans in 1608 a few were called Separatists because they 
were so discontented with the state-church that they were 
willing to leave it and to establish separate meetings from 
those of the parish-churches. Their leader was a clergy- 
man by the name of Brown. But to leave the state-church 
was against the law of the land, and Brown and his followers 
were finally arrested by the officers of the king, and their 
meetings were broken up. After much trouble one congrega- 




' The Homes of 
PILGRIM, PURITAN, 
CAVALIER, QUAKER 
AND CATHOLIC 

IN ENGLAND 



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tion, at Scrooby, fled to Leyden, Holland, in 1608, seeking 
with their scholarly pastor, John Robinson, that liberty of 
worship which the brave Dutch had established in 1581 after 
a generation of resistance against the bloody Spaniards. 



94 



DISCOVERY AXD SETTLEMENT. 



§ 4. The Pilgrims Settled at Plymouth. 

In Holland these English. Separatist-Puritans, or Inde- 
pendents, were known as Pilgrims ; but they were not 
happy, for they loved English customs and the English 
tongue, and wished their children to grow up as English 

men and women. 
They were very 
poor. At this 
time Hudson and 
Smith were ex- 
ploring the New 
World, and these 
English sojourn- 
ers in Holland 
decided to t r y 
their fortunes 
across the sea. 
They intended to 
settle in New 
Jersey, but all could not go, for they could afford but 
two small boats, the Speedwell, which they bought, and 
the Mayflower, which they chartered. The first-named boat 
was abandoned for unseaworthiness at Plymouth, England. 
Everything about the Mayflower was unattractive except 
its name, and the voyage was one of great discomfort and 
many hardships. There were one hundred and one pas- 
sengers on board. One died during the passage, and one 
child was born. In the winter of 1620, they reached not 
New Jersey but Cape Cod, landing first at Provincetown 
upon the desolate sands of its harbor-shore, and some 
weeks later going across the bay to Plymouth. One-half 




Model of the Mayflower 



THE PILGRIMS PASSED A DREADFUL WINTER. 



95 



of all the number died the first winter. In that severe 
climate they began the strange new life at a most unfor- 




Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, 1620. 



tunate time of the year. They were without comforts, 
and their women and children lacked even the bare neces- 
sities of life. Even the sailors of the Mayflower, which 
was wintering in the harbor, would not help them from the 
ship's stores. Crossing the sea, they adopted the Mayflower 
Compact, an agreement to establish personal liberty by self- 
government, and upon landing began their first town-meet- 
ing. Their spirit was unshaken by even their dire poverty 
in the frightful cold. In the first winter when Governor 
Carter died, they elected Bradford in his place. He had as 
his chief supporter in religion and government, Brewster, 
and in business and defense, Myles Standish ; and it speaks 
well for the -spirit of toleration of the Separatist Pilgrims 
that Standish himself was a Catholic. 



96 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 5. The Pilgrim Colony Led to the Puritan Immigration. 
Soon they made a treaty with Massasoit, chief of the 
Wampanoags, and their judicious dealings with him gave 
them not only Indian corn to eat, but a chance to live free 
from Indian attack. As the Jamestown colony had been 
_ helped by Powhatan, so 

the Plymouth colony was 
helped by Massasoit and 
Samoset. The latter was 
first led to the Pilgrims 
by Squanto, a Cape Cod 
Indian, who had been 
kidnapped in 1614, sold 
into slavery in Spain, 
and taught by the Chris- 
tian friars, and had then 
escaped back to his native land. Plymouth received some 
accessions in numbers in the next few years, while its colo- 
nists were learning how to gain a living by the culture of 
that unfruitful soil, but the great influence of the colony was 
in stimulating the Puritan emigration from England. By 
order of the governing Company, communism was tried for 
four years, but failed. The Pilgrims profited by the fur-trade. 




Property and Signature of Captain Standish. 



§ 6. The Puritans Established Many Settlements. 
By the year 1628, Charles I and his bishops had made the 
Puritans very uncomfortable within the Church of England. 
Forming a trading company, a body of the Puritans bought 
from the Plymouth Company a strip qf land from the 
Charles River to the Merrimac. Their first settlement was 
in Salem. King Charles gave them a liberal charter, for 



SELF-GOVERNMENT PREVAILED IN NEW ENGLAND. 97 



he was glad to see the malcontents depart, and hoped by his 
generosity to secure at least their good will. In 1630, John 
Winthrop came over 
with a thousand col- 
onists, many cattle, and 
abundant supplies. 
This was the greatest 
and most costly coloniz- 
ing expedition that had 
yet come to the New 
World. Before 1640, 
there were many thou- 
sand Puritans in Mas- 
sachusetts Bay Colony. 
Boston, whose first set- 
tlers came as early as 
1623, was established 
and named in honor of 
the English home of 
some of the settlers ; 
and a second center of 
English civilization was 
thriving three thousand miles from the mother country. 
Many smaller settlements soon followed. 

§ 7. The Puritans Formed Self-Governing Churches and Towns. 

The Puritans soon became Separatists like the Pilgrims 
at Plymouth, but many of them were of a different social 
class, for they had been men of w r ealth and power in Eng- 
land. They were almost as intolerant of dissent from their 
own religious views, as were the Catholics of Spain and the 




Puritans Awaiting Attack by Indians. 



98 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



Church of England leaders at home. Only church mem- 
bers could vote, so that Puritanism was the state-church 
in Massachusetts Bay just as the Anglican Church was 
the established religion in England. Each church con- 
gregation was self-governing, and formed a township in 
politics and a parish in religion. All 
public business, secular or religious, 
was transacted in the meeting-houses 
of the settlements. 
The ministers were 
local despots. In 
1634, representa- 
tive government 
began by the vari- 
ous towns' sending 
to the General 
Court, deputies to 
decide upon mat- 
ters of general 
importance to all 
people in the colony. This Court was a colonial legislature 
like the Virginian House of Burgesses. 




§ 8. Hartford was Settled by Colonists "Who Believed in 
Universal Self-Government. 

Meantime, the Dutch had begun their settlement at the 
mouth of the Hudson River, and had built a fort at Hart- 
ford to hold in their control the Connecticut valley. To 
stay their advance, John Winthrop, a son of Governor 
Winthrop of Massachusetts Bay, who was a far-sighted 
statesman, built a fort at Saybrook in 1635, at the mouth 



RHODE ISLAND WAS FREE TO ALL RELIGIONS. 99 



of the Connecticut River. The best land in eastern Massa- 
chusetts was now occupied, and the people were beginning 
to feel crowded upon their farms. Some of them felt also 
that Puritan religious intolerance in Massachusetts was 
quite as hard to bear as Anglican intolerance in England. 
Among these were white bond-servants who had com- 
pleted their service, but could not vote since they were 
not church members. Thomas Hooker, a clergyman and 
the first true democrat in the New World, — for even John 
Smith believed in kings and aristocrats, — brought a com- 
pany of one hundred settlers to Hartford in 1636. By 
1639, there were enough settlements and people in the 
neighborhood to warrant the adoption of the Constitution 
of Connecticut, the most liberal document of its kind up 
to that time in human history. It assumed the right of 
complete self-government as inherent in the people, and 
made no mention of any king. 

§ 9. New Haven and Newark were Founded by Puritans. 

At this time, 1637, New Haven was founded, basing its 
laws on the Bible, and allowing only church members to 
vote. Not long after, in 1666, Newark was founded in New 
Jersey upon the ^New Haven principles, its first settlers 
claiming that Boston morals were too lax for good church 
people. Always aggressive, the Puritans and the Puritan 
influences soon spread far beyond the vicinity of Massachu- 
setts Bay. 

§ 10. Roger Williams Founded Providence. 

Rhode Island was settled from Massachusetts Bay at this 
time, by Roger Williams, who was a pastor in Salem, and a 
democratic radical of very liberal religious and political 
LofC. 



100 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



views. He declared for equal rights for all people, the 
complete separation of Church and State, so that non-church 

members could vote, and 
recognition of the right 
of the Indians to the 
soil of the American 
continents. . There was 
no room for him in Mas- 
sachusetts. Hooker had 
voluntarily withdrawn in 
1635, but Williams was 
expelled in 1636. With 
his followers he estab- 
lished Providence. At this same time, Mrs. Anne Hutch- 
inson, a scholarly woman, interested in religion and very 
skillful for her times in medicine and surgery, was forced 
out of Boston and made a settlement at Newport. This 
famous and good woman was the mother of fifteen children. 
Despite her kindness to the Indians, she was killed by them 
in 1642 near New Amsterdam. 




Roger Williams and the Indians. 



§ 11. Massachusetts Adopted a Declaration of Liberties. 

The New World changed men's opinions very rapidly. 
Freedom and equal opportunity for all citizens became the 
common faith. In 1641, the General Court of Massachu- 
setts passed the Declaration of the Body of Liberties, one 
of the most important documents in American history. It 
is to be considered with the charter of the London Com- 
pany, the Mayflower Compact, and the Connecticut Consti- 
tution, as building those foundations of liberty in our 
country upon which the Declaration^ of Independence and 



THE DECLARATION OF LIBERTIES. 101 



the Constitution of the United States rest. In the Body 
of Liberties, the delegates of the people of Massachusetts 
published to the world their belief in the people's right to 
elect all their rulers from governor and judges down to 
clerks, and to pay them annually what they choose. Gov- 
ernment was to be by consent of the governed, and rulers 
must be servants. Belief in many other rights was affirmed, 
for these men fully understood the principles of that Great 
Charter which the scholars and barons of England had won 
from King John in 1215. Nathaniel Ward, who was both 
a lawyer and a minister, deserves to be remembered as the 
man who wrote this long " Declaration of Liberties." 

§ 12. Old Ideas Disappeared Slowly, and Freedom was Not 
Yet the Right of All. 

Yet with all their assurances of the rights of men to fair 
trials and to free ownership of land, and of women not to 
be whipped by their husbands, — for these are among the 
many rights in the Body of Liberties, — these people of 
Massachusetts, in 1641, regarded slavery and bond-service 
as entirely proper. Even this Declaration proclaims servi- 
tude as the just condition of some human beings. Our 
forefathers came over here with heads full of the ideas and 
customs of the Old World, but among them were wise men 
who foresaw better times in the future. The seventeenth 
century in England was full of trouble ; and it shows how 
hard life was for the poor and the ignorant there, and how 
unpleasant it was even for the rich and the wise, that so 
many thousands of all classes of people were ready to leave 
their English homes, and to endure the terrible hardships of 
those early days in Virginia and New England. 



102 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



§ 13. The New England Colonies Formed a Union. 





I Windsor 

Providence tfi\_ 

J Sl "' J?** V EARLY 

f^^^rC^^ >EW ENGLAND 

SETTLEMENTS 

SCALE OF MILES 



By 1643, so fast 
had affairs moved 
in New England, 
that the Massa- 
chusetts Bay, 
Plymouth, Con- 
necticut and New 
Haven colonies 
were ready to form 
the federation known as the United Colonies of New Eng- 
land, which lasted till 1684, and was the true forerunner 
of the Albany Convention of 1754 and of the Continental 
Congress of 1774. This confederation was intended as a 
military alliance against the Dutch in the West, against the 
French in the North, and against the Indians, with whom 
the Pequot War had already been fought — 1637. 

§ 14. The Quakers were Persecuted. 
In 1656, the Quakers, who called themselves "Friends/' 
began to come over to Massachusetts. The first two who 
came were at once arrested and put in jail, their very win- 
dows being boarded up to prevent them from seeing others 
and making converts. But more Quakers came, preaching 
religious independence and mutual toleration and the separa- 
tion of Church and State. The angry Puritans, though they 
had themselves separated from the Anglican Church of Eng- 
land, even hanged four Quakers for advocating separation 
from the Puritan meeting-houses of New England. This 
made the Quakers heroes and martyrs in the eyes of many 
people, and especially those not free to vote because they 



KING CHARLES ENFORCED TOLERATION. 103 



were not church members. In 1661, immediately after the 
downfall of the Puritan Republic in England, the Stuarts 
were restored to the throne in the person of Charles II, son 
of the Charles I who had died on the scaffold in 1649. 
Charles II issued an order forbidding the General Court of 
Massachusetts to inflict any bodily injury whatever upon 
the Quakers. After that Quakerism prospered. 

§ 15. Charles II Added New Haven to Connecticut, and 
Separated New Hampshire from Massachusetts. 

But King Charles II had a royal grievance against the 
New England colonies for harboring two of the " regicides," 
or king-killers as he chose to call the sixty-nine members of 
Parliament who had condemned his father to death, because, 
like most kings, Charles I meant to rule, with or with- 
out the people's consent, and, if need be, by force of arms. 
These regicides, Goffe and Whalley, in 1662, escaped from 
England to Massachusetts ; the royal order for their arrest 
was violated, and they were sent to New Haven, where they 
were safely hidden by Governor Davenport. Thereupon 
Charles united New Haven to the larger colony, Connecti- 
cut. By so doing he punished both Massachusetts and 
New Haven, for these two colonies were opposed to the 
democratic principles of Connecticut, and by this measure, 
Connecticut was made almost as strong as Massachusetts. 
He even sent out to Connecticut a new charter confirming 
most of Hooker's ideas as embodied in the Constitution of 
1639. Nor did he drop his quarrel with Massachusetts 
with this move, but separated from it the settlement in 
New Hampshire, which he made an independent colony in 
1679. Meantime his officers tried to enforce in New 



104 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 






England the same navigation laws that so restricted the Vir- 
ginia trade in tobacco, but perhaps benefited England and 
Europe, by raising the price and diminishing the sale of the 
article. The early excesses in the use of tobacco, by men, 
women, and children, educated and ignorant, form an interest- 
ing and instructive chapter in the history of human health. 

§ 16. King Charles Annulled the Massachusetts Charter. 

All this time there was growing up in New England a 
party of culture that was much opposed to the Puritan 
ideas of the necessity and desirability of union of Church 
and State. This party controlled Connecticut and Rhode 
Island, and was beginning to be influential in Massachusetts. 

As far back as 1636, Harvard College had been estab- 
lished. Free schools soon followed and became general. 
Little more than reading and writing was taught in them, 
however, until the Massachusetts General Court, or colonial 
legislature, required towns to give an education in Latin 
grammar sufficient to fit students for the college. Such is 
the origin of the grammar schools in our land. In 1643 the 
Puritan migration ceased because of the civil war raging 
in England. In the freer atmosphere of the New World, 
some of even the Puritans themselves began to grow 
more liberal. The non-church members came to outnum- 
ber the voting population, and there were few zealous 
Puritan recruits from England to renew the old exclusive 
and despotic religious spirit. Further, some immigrants 
to New England found its conditions so intolerable that 
they went back home, full of tales of Puritan bigotry. 
To them King Charles lent a ready hearing, with the result 
that in 1684 he annulled the charter of Massachusetts in 






" THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION IN AMERICA. 



105 



the interests of freedom of worship. Thus ended the Puri- 
tan political-religious system ; and the religion of the Epis- 
copal Church of England, as well as that of the Quakers, 
was legally tolerated in New England. This move of 
King Charles pleased so many of the people, that the Tory 
party of Loyalists may be said to date from 1684. 



§ 17. The English Revolution of 1688 had an Echo 
in New England. 

In the next year, 1685, Charles died, and was succeeded by 
his brother, James II, a would-be despot, both in England 
and in New England. James sent out Sir Edmund Andros 
to govern as viceroy 
from Maine to New 
Jersey. The new gov- 
ernor at once built an 
Episcopal Church in 
Boston, known even to- 
day as King's Chapel, 
though King James him- 
self was not an Anglican, 
but a Roman Catholic. 
Acting under the King's 
orders, he abolished the 
General Court, confis- 
cated lands and goods, 
levied arbitrary taxes, 
muzzled the press, and made arrests without warrants. In 
Connecticut, he stopped the operation of its liberal charter, 
though that precious parchment was itself safely hid in the 
famous Charter Oak. 




The Charter Oak. 



106 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



In 1688, James was himself dethroned, and fled on the 
last clay of that year* to France, whereupon Boston arose 
in insurrection, and deported Andros to England in 1689. 
Thus the great " English Revolution of 1688 " had its 
echo in New England. 

§ 18. King William III Restored Freedom to New England. 

William III Avas chosen by Parliament for the Eng- 
lish throne, partly by right of Mary, his wife, a daughter 
of James, and partly as the Dutch champion of Protes- 
tantism upon the 
continent of 
Europe. He gave 
back to Connecti- 
cut and Rhode 
Island their charter 
rights, and restored 
freedom to Massa- 
chusetts ; but he 
compelled reli- 
gious toleration 
there, and gave to 
all, irrespective of 
church member- 
ship, the right to 
vote. He annexed 
Plymouth to Mas- 
sachusetts, an act which benefited both colonies. He re- 
served, however, to the English crown the right to appoint 
the governor. It was in his reign, in 1692, that the Salem 
witchcraft delusion raged, illustrating the difficulty of the 



•:' -,' tJ> 




KM:-, ■. 


*Pt"&**5s» . . 




* 


*5Sk -mB 






mm 




" -■ \|fi 


IP 






jSp 


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I 



Puritans Arresting a Witch. 



THE NEW ENGLAND CHARACTER. 



10T 



human mind to acquire freedom from superstitions and 
cruel, false be- 
liefs. Part of the 
first witchcraft 
trials took place 
in the very 
house formerly 
occupied by 
Roger Williams, 
that great lover 
of justice. But 
its owner, Judge 
Samuel Sewall, Tu u , D ....... c . .„_ 

The House of Roger Williams, Salem, 1635. 

soon became a 

vigorous opponent of the delusion that witches exist. 




. § 19. New England was Democratic and Commercial. 

Thus grew up, widely separated from Virginia, an even 
larger English population than that colony then possessed. 
These New Englanders could not raise tobacco, and re- 
sorted to manufactures, to fishing, to ship-building, and 
lumbering, and to such general agriculture and gardening 
as the sterile soil and cold climate permitted. These occu- 
pations naturally resulted in establishing towns of consid- 
erable size rather than great plantations after the Virginia 
fashion. The free schools made the people intelligent, the 
hard climate made them industrious and thrifty, and their 
constant religious and political disagreements made them 
independent and combative. They managed all their local 
affairs in town-meetings, and by their General Court con- 
trolled to their own satisfaction nearly all large colonial 



108 DISCOVERY" AND SETTLEMENT. 



matters. They learned how to govern themselves, prac- 
ticed foresight and economy, and laid substantial founda- 
tions for the Republic that was yet to come. The democ- 
racy of Massachusetts was destined to produce in the next 
century for the Revolution, Samuel Adams, " the man of 
the town-meeting," as the aristocracy of Virginia was to 
produce George Washington, leader in war and peace. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. In what general respects did the history of Plymouth differ from 
that of Jamestown ? In what was it similar ? 

2. In Queen Elizabeth's time how were religion and patriotism re- 
lated ? 

3. What parties were there in England in 1620 among the Protestants? 

4. Why were the Pilgrims so called ? 

5. What was the name of the ship in which the Pilgrims made their 
voyage ? What sort of a ship was it ? 

6. What was the experience of the Pilgrims the first winter ? 

7. What were the Pilgrims' ideas as to self-government ? 

8. What was the historical importance of the Pilgrims ? Did they 
become a great colony ? Whom did they lead to America ? 

9. Who was the leader of the Puritans in America ? 

10. What changes took place in the Puritans' ideas of church-govern- 
ment after they came to America ? 

11. By what body was the Massachusetts Bay Colony governed ? 

12. What did the Puritans do to hold back the Dutch from the Con- 
necticut valley ? 

13. What were the causes of the migration to Connecticut ? 

14. Who was the leader of the migration ? 

15. What were the moral ideas of the people who settled in Newark, 
going from New Haven ? 

16. Who was Roger Williams ? Why did he leave Salem ? 

17. What persons settled Providence and Newport ? 

18. What federation was formed in 1643 ? What were its purposes ? 

19. Tell something about: The Mayflower Compact, the Connecticut 
Constitution, the Massachusetts Body of Liberties. 

20. Who drew up the last-named document ? 



THE ENGLISH IX NEW ENGLAND. 109 



21. Was freedom regarded as the natural birthright of all men? 
What were some of the Old World ideas about human equality ? 

22. How were the Quakers received in Massachusetts ? 

23. What did the Quakers advocate ? 

24. What did Charles II order regarding the Quakers ? 

25. What did the King do in New England to avenge his father's 
death ? 

26. What changes in population led to new views regarding the union 
of Church and State ? 

27. In 1684, why did the King annul the charter of Massachusetts ? 

28. What was the history of Sir Edmund Andros in New England 
before 1689 ? 

29. How did the "English Revolution " affect him ? 

30. What did William III do regarding the right to vote in Massa- 
chusetts ? 

31. What unfortunate delusion raged in Salem in 1692 ? 

32. What were the occupations of New England people in the seven- 
teenth century (i.e., before 1701) ? 

33. What was the character of the people ? Compare it with that of 
the Virginians. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. I., pp. 325—506; The Puritans; Pilgrims in 
Holland ; Plymouth Colony ; Bradford ; Massachusetts Bay Colony ; 
Mrs. Hutchinson ; The Vote ; Rhode Island ; Roger Williams ; Thomas 
Hooker ; New Haven ; Connecticut : New England Confederation ; 
Andros ; Harvard College ; Quakers ; Indians. 

MacDonald's Select Charters ; Massachusetts Body of Liberties. 

American Historical Bevievj, January, 1903 ; Plantation Colonies. 

Hart's Source Readers, Vol. I., pp. 170-224; Colonial Children. 

Eggleston's Beginners of the Nation and Transit of Civilization. 

Eiske's Beginnings of New England. 

Thwaites's Colonies, Chaps. VI. -VII. : New England. 

Bancroft's History of JJ. S., Vol. I. Various chapters. See Bibliography 
in Appendix. 

Harper's Encyclopaedia of U. S. History: Pilgrims; Plymouth; — inter- 
esting accounts of homes in England, their straw beds, etc. 

Lossing's Our Country, Vol. I., Chap. VII. :*New England. 

Old South Leaflets : Nos. 6, 7, 19, 21, 28, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 62, 64, 
66, 67, 72, 77, 110, 121. 



110 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION BY 
INDIVIDUALS OR THE CLASS. 

1. Pastor Robinson and the Pilgrims in Holland. 

2. The Passage in the Mayflower ; and the Compact. 

3. The First Winter at Plymouth ; Myles Standish's Fort ; the Friend- 
ship of the Indians. 

4. Governor Winthrop. 

5. The Fort at Saybrook. 

6. Hooker and the Connecticut Colony. 

7. New Haven ; Newark ; and the " Blue Laws.'' 

8. Roger Williams. 

9. Anne Hutchinson. 

10. Nathaniel Ward, Scholar and Democrat. 

11. Slavery in New England. 

12. Quakers and Puritans. 

13. Edmund Andros, a Good Man, but a Bad Ruler. 

14. William III, Leader of Protestantism in Europe. 

15. Cotton Mather and the Salem Witchcraft Delusion. 

16. The Varied Industries of New England. 



ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1607. Jamestown colony is founded. 

1620. Plymouth is colonized. 

1626. Salem has its first settlers. 

1630. Boston is established. 

1635. A fort is built at Saybrook on the Connecticut River. 

1635. Hartford is begun. 

1636. Thomas Hooker brings to Hartford a congregation. 
1636. Roger Williams goes to Providence. 

1643. The New England Confederation is organized. 

1641. The Massachusetts General Court adopts the Body of Liberties. 

1636. Harvard College is begun. 

1684. The Massachusetts Charter is annulled, but in 1692 a new Charter 

is granted. 

1688. Andros is sent back to England. 



DUTCH AND SWEDES. Ill 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE DUTCH AND THE SWEDES. 

§ 1. The Dutch Made Friends of the Iroquois. 

" It is as beautiful a land as the feet of man ever trod 
upon," said Henry Hudson, in 1609, of the valley of the 
Hudson River, up which he sailed as far as the present 
Troy, the limit of tide-water. On that voyage he made 
friends of the Iroquois Indians, — a most fortunate circum- 
stance later for the Dutch and the English, since earlier 
in that same year Cham plain had fought these very Iro- 
quois, and made them implacable enemies of the French. 
Fiercest of all the Indians were the Iroquois, then called 
the Five Nations, who lived in the Mohawk Valley, and 
proudest, getting their name from their pride, for the name 
means the I-have-said-it-people. 

§ 2. New Amsterdam was Established. 

The Dutch, recently released from their thraldom to 
Spain, began in the spirit of conciliation, for they meant 
to secure the fur-trade by winning the good will of the 
Indians from the English and the French. They soon 
established trading-posts at Albany and on Manhattan 
Island. In 1614 they built a few houses on the island, 
and called the settlement New Amsterdam. They estab- 
lished also in 1614 Fort Orange, now Albany. The Dutch 
Republic claimed by right of exploration and occupation 
all the land from Virginia to the Connecticut River, and 
called the region New Netherlands. Thus was a fourth 
claim added to those of Spain, France, and England to the 



112 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



Hudson valley, — a claim prophetic of the future cosmo- 
politanism of a commercial city where as early as 1611 
eighteen languages were spoken. The first considerable 
immigration was that of a body of several hundred French- 
speaking Walloons, Protestant refugees from Belgium, who 
had fled to Holland, then the asylum for the oppressed of 
Europe, as America has been almost ever since the begin- 
ning of its history. 

§ 3. The Dutch Traders Acquired the Island of Manhattan. 
In 1626 Governor Peter Minuit recognized the Indians' 
claim to the region by paying them, on behalf of the Dutch 




Peter Minuit and the Indians Trading for the Island of Manhattan, 1626. 

West India Company, twenty-four dollars in merchandise 
for Manhattan Island, thus winning renewal of friendship 
without impoverishing the buyers. Yet if in that same 



THE PBOGBESS OE NEW AMSTERDAM. 113 



year he had put the money in the Amsterdam Bank at 
ten per cent interest (a very low rate for those times) to 
be compounded till now, the fund to-day would amount 
to more than the present wealth of the entire island with all 
its nearly three million inhabitants. New Amsterdam long 
remained but a small village compared with Boston. 

§ 4. The Colony Grew Fast in Wealth and Population- 

The Dutch extended their trading-posts to the Delaware 
River and up the Hudson, but did not begin agricultural 
operations extensively until 1639. In that year the patroon 
system of large plantations with many tenants, adopted in 
1629, was admitted to be partially unsuccessful, since it 
did not stimulate the energies of the working people, and 
was supplemented by grants of small farms to many of the 
industrious poor. From that time the colony throve, except 
during 1643-44, the years of Governor Kieft's mismanage- 
ment and conflicts with the Indians. He was displaced 
by Peter Stuyvesant, a one-legged, irascible, honest, and 
able tyrant, who permitted perfect freedom in religion but 
none in government. Settlers came in greater and greater 
numbers from all parts of Europe, and the general wealth 
continued to increase. 

§5. The Dutch Seized New Sweden, 1655; and the English 
Seized New Amsterdam, 1664. 

In 1638, the Swedes, encouraged by their king, the great 
Gustavus Adolphus, and later by Queen Christina, a very 
able ruler, had planted a colony in Delaware. In this 
colonization, which spread to Pennsylvania, Peter Minuit, 
the shrewd German trader, was one of the leaders. In 



114 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



1655, when Sweden was unable, in the terrible times of the 
Thirty Years' War, to protect the colony, Stuyvesant at- 
tacked and conquered it, adding it to New Netherlands. 
In 1664, New Amsterdam and New Netherlands were seized 
by a fleet sent out by Charles II, and the Dutch colony be- 
came an English domain. The people of the colony welcomed 
the change from Dutch to English rule, and the wrathful 
Stuyvesant could persuade none of them to offer resistance. 
King Charles gave the colony to his brother James, the 
Duke of York, who himself afterwards became king. 



§6. 



New York Became an English City in Fact as Well as 
in Name. 



The city on Manhattan 




Peter Stuyvesant's Wrath at the Demand for the 
Surrender of New Amsterdam. 



Island continued to prosper 
under the English system 
of representative govern- 
ment as it had prospered 
under the Dutch tyranny. 
The transfer of sovereignty 
led to the immigration of 
many English and Scotch 
colonists, so that the Eng- 
lish-speaking people soon 
came to control the social 
as well as the political life. 
The method of seizure was 
peculiar, indeed, and wor- 
thy of a king and of an age 
in which Henry Morgan, 
the Welsh pirate and buc- 
caneer, could pillage the 



THE CAUSE OE POPULAR LIBERTY. 115 



Spanish cities of Panama and Portobello, and sail to 
London with his wealth to receive a baronetcy at the 
hands of Charles. The seizure of New Amsterdam was 
avenged by the Dutch fleet that sailed up the Thames in 
1665 and destroyed practically all the merchantmen and 
war-ships in the river and upon the southern coast of 
England. The English and Dutch war lasted for ten 
years more, but did not vitally affect American history. 

§ 7. The English Revolution Reached New York. 

All was not peace in New York after the English 
secured control. Government was far more fair and just 
than in the times of Dutch authority, but it was not yet as 
fair and just as many people wished. When William and 
Mary came to the English throne, their sympathizers in 
New York demanded new rulers. The friends of King 
James were called " aristocrats," the friends of King William 
" democrats." These latter were in the majority ; and 
without legal right they selected Jacob Leisler, a German 
merchant of wealth and high social position, as military 
commander and ruler of the city. For two years this ruler 
selected by the people held office by their consent, and 
governed the city well. In 1691, he was displaced by a 
lieutenant-governor sent over by the King, who entirely 
misunderstood the conditions. Leisler's enemies secured 
his arrest and execution as a traitor ; but the lieutenant- 
governor, when he fully understood the merits of Leisler's 
conduct, died himself soon after of remorse because he had 
signed the death-warrant of a martyr to the cause of human 
liberty. Leisler's life and death did much to advance the 
cause of popular self-government in America. 



116 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Why were the Iroquois friends of the Dutch, but enemies of the 
French ? 

2. What motives led the Dutch to the Hudson valley ? 

3. How many and what nations claimed the Hudson valley ? 

4. Why did Governor Minuit buy the island of Manhattan from the 
Indians ? Did he drive a good bargain ? 

5. What was the patroon system ? Was it entirely successful ? 

6. What manner of ruler was Peter Stuyvesant ? 

7. Who established the first successful colony in Delaware ? 

8. Why did the people of New Amsterdam surrender without resist- 
ance to the English in 1664 ? 

9. Was the seizure of the city an unusual sort of affair for those 
times ? 

10. Was New York as prosperous as New Amsterdam ? 

11. Was Leisler a good ruler ? Was he legally appointed ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Irving' s Knickerbocker History of New York: Dutch Character. 

Brady's Colonial Fights and Fighters : Morgan. 

Eiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies: Vol. L, especially Chap. IX. 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. I., 520-562 : The Dutch. 

Roosevelt's New York, Chap. I. : Hudson's Voyage. 

Schuyler's Colonial New York: Introduction: The Patroons. 

Todd's History of New York City, 

Brodhead's New York State, Chaps. IV.-V. : The Conquest of New 

Amsterdam. 
Frothingham's Rise of the Republic, Chap. III. : Leisler. 
Lossing's Empire State, Chap. VIII. 
Harper's Encyclopaedia of United States History: New Amsterdam, New 

York, New Sweden. 
U hi man's Landmark History. 
Consult also various Guide-books to New York. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION BY 
INDIVIDUALS OR THE CLASS. 

1. The Iroquois and the English. 

2. Early Dutch Settlements. 

3. The Dutch West India Company. 






THE DUTCH AND THE SWEDES. 117 



4. Early New York, its Houses, Public Buildings, Canals, Buildings, 
Streets, Farms, etc. 

5. Gustavus Adolphus, Colonizer. 

6. The Swedes in Delaware. 

7. Peter Stuyvesant. 

8. Trade and Piracy on the High Seas and in Long Island Sound. 

9. Dutch Misrule. 

10. Dutch Religious Toleration. 

11. The Mistake of King and Government in Dealing with Leisler. 

12. King William in his Relation to the Colonies. 

13. Port Orange (Albany). 

14. The Struggle for the Pur-trade. 

15. The Story of the Seizure of New Amsterdam. 

16. Adrian Block, Who in 1613, with his Crew, Spent the Winter on 
Manhattan Island, and in 1614 Discovered the Connecticut River, Block 
Island, etc. 

17. The Protest of the Plymouth Company against the Dutch Occupa- 
tion of the Hudson Valley. 

18. The Career of Peter Minuit. 

19. The Patroons. 

20. The Dutch and the Indians. 



ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1607. Jamestown is settled. 

1609. Hudson explores the Hudson Kiver, and 

1609. The Dutch begin trade with the Indians. 

1614. Forts are built near Albany, and on Manhattan Island. 

1626. Peter Minuit buys the island from the Indians for the Dutch West 

India Company. 

1639. Lands in the Hudson valley are granted to small farmers. 

1641. Eighteen languages are spoken in New Amsterdam. 

1638. The Swedes establish a colony in Delaware. 

1655. The Dutch take New Sweden. 

1664. The English take New Amsterdam. 

1691. Leisler, a democrat, is executed for treason in taking a public office 

without royal warrant. 



118 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



THE ENGLISH IN THE LATER COLONIES. 



§ 1. English Catholics Established the Colony of Maryland. 

Catholics as well as Puritans were at a great political 
disadvantage in England in the early days of the seven- 
teenth century which saw Virginia and Massachusetts 

colonized. They could occupy 
no public offices. They refused 
to conform to the Anglican Epis- 
copal State-Church, holding that 
it was then but two generations 
old, for in their opinion Roman 
Catholicism had been the religion 
of England until the time of 
Henry VIII, and many of the 
oldest families, especially those 
in the country districts, were still 
Roman Catholic. George Calvert, a recent convert to the 
Catholic faith, was a rich gentleman of Yorkshire, who 
wished to find a refuge in the New World for his fellow- 
religionists. After exploring the country north of Virginia, 
and finding it attractive, he obtained a grant of the land 
from King Charles I, and as a compliment to the Queen, 
Henrietta Maria, who was a loyal Catholic from France, he 
called it Maryland. He was made lord proprietary with 
sovereign powers, and was given the title of Lord Baltimore, 
but died before he could set out for his new possessions. 
His son Cecil, second Lord Baltimore, established a colony 
at St. Mary's in 1634. 




Coat of Arms o f the Calverts. 



THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE COLONIES. 119 



§ 2. Maryland Prospered Despite the Intolerant Puritans. 

People of all religious creeds were tolerated for a half- 
century, as in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Am- 
sterdam. They found Maryland a goodly land, full of 
waterways, and bountifully supplied by Nature with game, 
birds, fish, oysters, and crabs. The climate was delightful and 
the soil fertile. The conditions of life were all favorable. 
But for an invasion of Puritans from England, Virginia, 
and New England, Maryland would have been peaceful. 
The new-comers, however, in their zeal for the strictest 
morality and for religious observances, brought on civil war 
in 1657, during the time of the Puritan Commonwealth in 
England. From this period to the Revolution, Maryland 
was no longer strictly free to people of all religions, but 
Puritanism was in the ascendancy, as in Massachusetts. 

§ 3. The English Established a Successful Colony in 
New Jersey in 1665. 

Several English colonies had already failed in northern 
New Jersey, and several attempts to colonize had been 
thwarted by the Dutch, who already had very small settle- 
ments at Bergen and elsewhere when the first successful 
enterprise was undertaken by Philip Carteret, who estab- 
lished Elizabethtown in 1665. In the preceding year the 
Duke of York had granted the region between the Dela- 
ware and the ocean to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George 
Carteret. Later there came in colonies from New England 
as well as from across the sea, so that New Jersey soon 
had a considerable population, engaged almost entirely in 
agriculture. Almost from the first the colony was divided 
into East and West Jersey, but the two lords proprietary 



120 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 

sold out one after the other through a long period of years 
to the Quakers and their supporters, among whom was 
William Penn, so that by 1682 they owned it all. 

§ 4. The People of the Colony Lived in Peaceful Harmony. 

In 1702, after many legal disputes between factions 
among the colonists and also among the proprietors, the 
colony was taken into the control of the English King. 
New Jersey had from the beginning strong Scotch Presby- 
terian and English Puritan elements in its population, 
but its history is that of peaceful agricultural devel- 
opment rather than of vigorous religious and political 
dissension. No large towns grew up, and the people were 
widely separated upon their farms. 

§ 5. Friends of King Charles Established a Colony in the 
Carolinas. 

The " Merry Monarch " of Stuart ancestry, Charles II, to 
whom the English throne was restored in 1660, had some 
good qualities. Among these qualities was a desire to 
reward his friends when he could do so at small cost to 
himself. One of the first things he did was to grant in 
1663 the region south of Virginia to eight noblemen and 
gentlemen as lords proprietors. They made settlements 
as far apart as the Virginia border and Charleston, which 
they called Charles Town in honor of the King. The 
colony naturally was divided into North and South Caro- 
lina, so named many years before for Charles I, whose name 
in Latin is Carolus. Sometimes there were two governors, 
and sometimes one was enough. The lords proprietors 
cared for profits only, and their rule was soon unpopular. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOUTH. 



121 



§ 6. The Population was Cosmopolitan. 

North Carolina had already a little settlement of people 
from Virginia when the English proprietors began system- 
atic colonizing efforts, which at first were directed chiefly 
to South Carolina. Thither came Englishmen, Huguenots, 
Germans, Dutch, Welsh, and Scotch-Irish. In South Caro- 
lina were soon developed rice and indigo plantations which 
called for cheap .labor. Many Negro slaves were imported. 
To North Carolina, especially after 1744, there was a still 
larger migration of 
people, chiefly Virgin- 
ians, English, and 
Scotch-Irish. Slaves 
were few. 

§ 7. The People Ob- 
jected to Tyranny. 

Unfortunately for 
the Carolinas, the 
early government was 
based upon a consti- 
tution drawn up for 
the lords proprietors by John Locke, a great English phil- 
osopher. It reproduced the grades of mediaeval feudalism 
to far greater extent than even the patroon system that the 
Dutch had tried earlier in the century. This " Grand 
Model " made trouble because while it was not practical, and 
was wholly behind the spirit and needs of the times, the 
Carolinians for some years tried to obey it. The people 
were divided into many grades and classes with fanciful 
names and rights. It is interesting to note that at the 




122 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



crisis, the " Grand Model " was forgotten, for in 1690 the 
governor, Colleton, who had violated the colonists' ideas of 
justice, was deported to England with the same swiftness 
and decision that Andros experienced at the hands of 
colonial Englishmen in Massachusetts. 

§ 8. The Quakers Established a Colony in Pennsylvania. 

Half a century after most of the problems of colonization 
had been solved, Pennsylvania came into being. Its founder 




William Perm Discussing a Treaty with the Indians. 

was a wealthy Quaker and a distinguished statesman, by 
name William Penn, to whom King Charles owed a consid- 
erable debt. Penn wished to establish in the New World 
a refuge for Quakers, just as Carver and Bradford had 
made a refuge for Separatists in Plymouth, Winthrop a 
refuge for Puritans in Massachusetts, and the Cal verts a 
refuge for Catholics in Maryland. The European world 



PENN ESTABLISHED A GftEAT COLONY, 



123 



had not yet learned to let men think for themselves. Uni- 
formity in religion and despotism or aristocracy in govern- 
ment seemed necessary to make strong nations. Penn was 
already familiar with colonization, for he had a proprietary 
interest in New Jersey. In 1681 he secured from Charles 
the grant of Pennsylvania in discharge of the royal debt, 
and in 1682 he wisely bought from the Indians the land 
actually needed for settlement. 



§ 9. "William Penn Brought Many Germans to His Colony. 
Many Quakers came to the colony, where indeed there 
were already not a few earlier settlers ; and Philadelphia, 
the City of Brotherly Love in Penn's Woods, was by 1700 
the largest and 
richest city in the 
New World. He 
knew the awful 
results, of the 
Thirty Years' 
War in Germany, 
where whole dis- 
tricts were almost 
entirely depopu- 
lated, and where 
the few survivors 
were hiding in 
caves and in hol- 
low trees. He sent agents to Germany, Switzerland, and 
Belgium to gather these wretched men and women together 
as colonists, and brought them over in his own ships. This 
was a wonderful kindness to the Protestant refugees, but 




The Second Home of William Penn in Philadelphia, Roofed 
* with Slate and Elegantly Furnished. 



124 



DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



it was also a benefit to the colony, for better citizens in 
industry and character never came to America. There came 
also to Pennsylvania, Swedes, Finns, and Welsh, so that the 
English Quakers were barely a majority of all the people. 

§ 10. The Colony was Very Successful and Happy. 
The laws of Pennsylvania were always mild. There was 
civil and religious freedom, secured by self-government. 
There were no factions among the people, and no wars 
with the Indians. " Happy is the people that has no his- 
tory," may well be written of the Pennsylvanians ; and in 

truth, " Blessed are the meek, 
for they shall inherit the earth," 
may be written of the Quakers 
in Pennsylvania. Their political 
troubles were few and slight. 
As for William Penn himself, 
though his colony cost him al- 
most his entire fortune, he left a 
reputation for ability and rights 
eousness to which feAv others in 
colonial history are equal. 




am Penn. 



Born, 1644; died, 1718. Rich 
Quaker : Statesman: Philanthropist. 



§11. Delaware Grew in Population. 

After the English took New 
Amsterdam, the question of the 
ownership of Delaware, which the Swedes had first col- 
onized and the Dutch had then conquered, became a 
matter of dispute. In 1685 it was organized as a territory 
of Pennsylvania with a separate assembly but with the same 
governor. Its population was largely increased by immigra- 
tion of English and German settlers from Pennsylvania. 



THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN 1770. 125 



§ 12. The People All Lived Near the Atlantic Coast. 

The founding of the Carolinas and Pennsylvania ends 
the story of colonization during the seventeenth century in 
the present region of the United States. The year 1702 
saw twelve colonies here, — New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, and Connecticut; New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania (with Delaware, its dependent colony) ; and 
Maryland, Virginia, and the two Carolinas. In that year 
New Hampshire, New Jersey, and North Carolina still had 
only small populations. The largest cities were Philadel- 
phia, New York, Boston, and Charleston. Nearly all the 
people lived near the Atlantic coast, or in some river-valley 
by which the ocean could easily be reached. 

§ 13. Modern Estimates of the Population Vary. 

No census of the people in our country was taken until 
the year 1790, when the number was 4,000,000. A cen- 
tury before that time it was considered " unlucky" to be 
counted in a roll-book. There may have been, in those 
days of tyranny and oppression, as much good sense as 
superstition in a man's unwillingness to give a government 
officer the names of himself and of members of his family, 
and items of property and business. Estimates of the 
country's population for 1700, the end of the seventeenth 
century, vary from 255,000 to 400,000. They are based 
upon voting-lists, church-membership lists, estimates sent 
to the home government in England by the royal govern- 
ors, and estimates by the agents of English merchants, 
who were trying to develop New World trade. The lists 
were very deficient, including by no means all the people, 
while many of the estimates were extravagantly large. 



126 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



Besides all the free white settlers, there were many 
thousand Negro slaves, and several thousand white bond- 
servants. It is now impossible to arrive at any thoroughly 
reliable estimate of their numbers. 

§ 14. The Lowest Estimate. 

The lowest estimate of the number of colonists in 1700 
is as follows : viz., — 

New Hampshire ..... 5,000 

Massachusetts 70,000 

Rhode Island 6,000 

Connecticut . , 25,000 New England Colonies, 105,000 

New York 25,000 

New Jersey 14,000 

Pennsylvania with Dela- 
ware 21,000 Middle Colonies . . . 60,000 

Maryland 25,000 

Virginia 60,000 

Carolinas 5,000 Southern Colonies . . 90,000 

Population in all the colonies 255,000 

In all human history no colonization like this — so rapid, 
so great, so successful — had ever been witnessed before. 
In these colonies was to be seen daring the next century 
the preparation for the greatest experiment the human race 
has ever tried: a nation with religious freedom, political 
equality, complete self-government in national and local 
affairs, universal opportunity for education ; in short, — ■ 
democracy. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What motives led the Cal verts to Maryland ? 

2. For whom was the colony named ? Why ? 

3. Who put an end to religious toleration in Maryland ? 



THE LATER COLONIES. 127 



4. What lords proprietors secured New Jersey ? 

5. Under what circumstances were the Jerseys united as one colony ? 

6. Was the early history of New Jersey peaceful or excited ? 

7. To whom did King Charles II grant the Carolinas ? 

8. From what peoples did emigrants go to the Carolinas ? 

9. Did the early government of the Carolinas satisfy the people ? 

10. Compare the fortune of Colleton in the Carolinas with that of 
Andros in New England at the time of the " English Revolution.' 1 

11. Who founded a home for Quakers in the New World ? 

12. How did he treat the Indians ? 

13. What settlers did he bring to America besides the Quakers ? 

14. Was his colony successful ? 

15. What was the relation of Delaware to Pennsylvania ? 

16. What colonies were there in 1702 ? 

17. Was their population exactly recorded ? 

18. What is a low estimate as to the number of colonists ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Bancroft's United States History, Vol. I., Chap. XIX. : Summary of 

Early Colonial History. 
F\ske' s Dutch and Quaker Colonies, Vol. II., Chaps. XII.. XVI., XVII. : 

Penn. 
Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. I., pp. 548-575: Germans. William Penn, 

The Jerseys. 
Channing's Student' 1 's History United States, Chap. II. 
Consult the standard encyclopedias : George Calvert, Cecil Calvert, 

Berkeley, Carteret, "Grand Model," Thirty Years' War, Delaware 

(early history). 
Hodges's William Penn. 

Harper's Encyclopedia United States History : Census. 
Eggleston's Transit of Civilization, Chap. IV. : Superstitions and Reli- 
gious Toleration. 
Thwaites's Colonies, pp. 82-111, Maryland ; the Carolinas : pp. 201, 

207-217, Delaware, Pennsylvania. 

TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION. 

1. Catholics in England in 1634. 

2. The Puritan Invasion of Maryland. 

3. Disputes among the Lords Proprietors in New Jersey. 



128 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 



4. The Quakers (Friends) and William Penn. 

5. Penn's Treaties with the Indians. 

6. Early Negro-slavery in South Carolina. 

7. The Banishment of Governor Colleton. 

8. The Population of Pennsylvania : Was it more or less Cosmopoli- 
tan than New York or the Carolinas ? 

9. The Large Cities of our Country in 1700. 
10. Opposition to Census-taking in Early Days. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1607. Jamestown is settled. 

1620. Plymouth is settled. 

1626. Minuit buys Manhattan Island. 

1634. Lord Baltimore establishes a colony at St. Mary's, Maryland. 

1638. Minuit settles a colony in Delaware for the Swedes. 

1665. Carteret establishes Elizabethtown in New Jersey. 

1675. Newark is established by Puritans from New England. 

1657-90. The Puritans are in control in Maryland. 

1680. Charleston, South Carolina, is established. 

1682. Penn establishes Philadelphia. 

1685. Delaware is added to Pennsylvania through purchase by Penn from 

the king. 
1688-9. "The English Revolution." 
1690. The people of the Carolinas object to tyranny, and deport the Governor. 

Note. — Census figures tell much to the student. A reason why Mas- 
sachusetts played so important a part in colonial history lies in the num- 
ber as well as the quality of its population. Pennsylvania had a very 
large part of its population in or near Philadelphia itself, while the people 
of most of the colonies were widely scattered. Virginia and Massachu- 
setts together had half of all the people of the colonies, but a very large 
part of the population of Virginia was composed of Negroes, who them- 
selves had no active influence upon the development of political and reli- 
gious ideas. 



PART TWO. 

PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE INDIANS AND THE EARLY SETTLERS. 

§ 1. The Origin of the American Aborigines is Unknown. 

Fob, untold centuries men have lived here in the New 
World. The aboriginal men were of one race, whose 
origin is very close to the 
stock of primitive humankind. 
They may have crossed from 
Asia when there was contin- 
uous land from Kamchatka 
to Alaska, or they may have 
drifted across the Pacific 
Ocean in canoes and rafts 
from Northern Asia. No one 
yet knows the facts. But we 
do know that human beings 
have lived here since the glacial age covered the northern 
part of the present United States with mountains of ice, 
carving out its valleys, and grinding down its hills. 

§ 2. Highest in Development were the Incas of Peru. 

When the first Europeans came to these shores they 
found, in the different regions, tribes of natives in various 
degrees of culture. Highest in development were the 

129 




An Indian Summer Home. 



130 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



Incas of Peru, who knew how to build fine structures, and 
to make fine roads; how to work some of the metals; how 
to cultivate the soil successfully, and to raise llamas and 
alpacas ; how to compose oral prose and poetry ; and how 
to keep accounts. But they did not know how to write 
their language, and had the most despotic government 
that the world has ever known. They and their subject 
tribes outnumbered all other American aborigines together, 
reaching fully ten million souls. 

§ 3. The Aztecs and Incas Attracted the Spaniards, 

Somewhat below them in culture, were the Aztecs of 
Mexico, with their subject peoples numbering a million or 
more. Like the Incas, they were governed despotically. 
They were especially devoted to astronomy, of which they 
knew in 1500 quite as much as the Europeans. To their 
gods of the sky they sacrificed annually 20,000 human vic- 
tims. The Incas and Aztecs of the American 
tropics concern the history of the United 
States in one way only : by their almost in- 
credible wealth, they attracted the attention 
of the Spaniards so completely that our land 
was left to colonization by other nations. 

§ 4. The Indians were of Various Stages 
of Culture. 

Here in the United States, with its severer 
climate of the north temperate zone, were the 
Indians, as we understand the meaning of 
that word, the wild people of forest, river, 

The Cradle of an In- f f ' ' 

dian Baby. and plain, the savage warriors, the laborious 




THE NUMBER OF THE INDIANS IS UNKNOWN. 131 



squaws, the pappooses, swaddled and bound. Here were 
their cornfields, mounds, wigwams, tomahawks, and fires 
to torture the captives taken in battle. The number 
of these Indians is conjectural, and the estimates vary 
from two hundred and fifty thousand to two millions, from 
Atlantic Ocean to 
Pacific, and from 
Lakes to Gulf. 
They varied from 
the strong, fierce, 
at times really bril- 
liant Iroquois of 
the Northeast, to 
the miserable clay- 
eating Diggers, of 
the Southwest. 
They were divided 
into many different 
tribes and bands, 
and spoke many 
different tongues. 



§ 5. Our First Set- 
tlers saw Algon- 
quin Indians. 

In early colonial 
days, our people 
had most to do 
with tribes speak- 
ing dialects of 



i 



lb 



Indian Village of Secotan in Carolina. Here, in 1587. 

Manteo, Sachem of the Croatan Indians, was made by 

Governor White, Baron of Roanoke, the First and 

only Lord ever Created upon our Soil. 



the Algonquin language. These Algonquins, less than a 



132 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



hundred thousand in number, roamed the country from 
Maine to Dakota and Virginia. In their midst, making 
as it were an island in the Algonquin sea, were the Huron- 
Iroquois, where now is Central and Western New York 
State. After 1715, the Northern Iroquois added to them- 
selves the Tuscaroras of the South, and became the Six 
Nations. The Tuscaroras had been defeated in war by 
the white settlers of Carolina. The Iroquois numbered 
perhaps twenty thousand men, women, and children. 

§ 6. Noteworthy Facts About the Indians. 

It is impossible in a book of this size to develop fully 
the subject of the American Indians, but it is profitable to 

notice some few facts about 
them. 

First, They were cease- 
lessly at war with each other. 
Even after our colonial his- 
tory began, the Iroquois fell 
upon the Illinois and killed 
nearly all of them. The 
Europeans did not bring war to this continent, they found 
it here, as terrible as ever Europe knew it. 

Second, When the Europeans came, Indian culture was 
already on the decline. The fiercest and wildest Indians 
were killing off the more peaceful tribes. Disease was do- 
ing its fatal work. Disease and war nearly wiped out the 
Hurons in the period after their discovery by the French. 
Population was generally decreasing in all the tribes. 

Third, They were making no systematic use of the soil 




A Clay Bowl. 



MAP OF INDIAN TKLBES. 



133 




134 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 

and its resources. On the contrary, their cultivation of 
corn and of tobacco was spasmodic. They preferred fishing 
and hunting to work, and preferred fighting to fishing. 
After untold ages of occupation of the land, they could 
show as the result, not even honest and frank characters. 
They preferred to kill by stealth and ambush, for their 
motives were revengeful rather than daring. 

Fourth, They had some admirable powers and qualities. 
They could endure terrible fatigue and hardship, could see 
and hear with marvelous acuteness, made beautiful canoes, 
bows, arrows, snowshoes, believed in self-government, and 
would die for a friend. 

Fifth, and most important, There are many more Indians, 
and persons largely of Indian descent, now within the 
United States, than there were in 1600. Most of them 
have been absorbed into the population, have married the 
whites as equals, and are now indistinguishable in our 
population. In 1900 there were five thousand Iroquois 
farmers in New York State alone. It is questionable 
whether there ever were four thousand Iroquois warriors 
alive in any generation of the old times. Even of the 
Indians regularly recognized as such by the Government of 
the United States, there are now a quarter of a million. 
It is to the credit of the Indians of the United States that 
with but few exceptions they preferred death to any form 
of slavery or servitude, and have thereby maintained for 
the race final equality with the white men. 

§ 7. The Red Men -were the Teachers of the White. 

To our ancestors the presence of the Indians was, on the 
whole, helpful rather than harmful. By their generous 



GOOD RESULTS FROM THE INDIANS. 



135 



kindness the Indians made possible the success of both 
Jamestown and Plymouth in early years. By their trade 
they made the Dutch and French colonies successful. They 
taught the early colonists that woodcraft of which as civil- 
ized Europeans they knew nothing. They taught the Vir- 
ginians how to grow tobacco, corn, and potatoes. Most 
helpful of all to the colonists, they fought them, and 
compelled the various colonies — English, Dutch, Swede, 
German, Scotch-Irish — to draw together for protection. 
But for the early Indian wars colonial union would have 
been long delayed ; indeed, there might easily have been 
civil war. Even as it was, the English fought with the 
colonial Dutch, and the Dutch with the Swedes, as we 
have seen. But for the pres- 
ence of their Indian enemies 
the English might have fallen 
to fighting each other. 

The importance of the In- 
dians in the early life of the 
colonies was great. Individ- 
uals among them often came 
to live with the settlers. In 
war and in peace to the early 
colonists the Indians were 
teachers of the necessity of 
vigilance, bravery, self-reli- 
ance, energy, and honor; for the Indians, whether friends 
or foes, never spared the slothful, the cowardly, the vacil- 
lating, or the weak. In the great strange school of Nature 
in the New World, Cavalier, Puritan, Quaker, gentleman, 
mechanic, bond-servant, Negro slave, jail-bird, found the 




A Clay Vase. 



136 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



Indian his invaluable instructor. The red man compelled 
the white man to forget the Old World, and to bring his 
soul as well as his body into the life of the New. 



§ 8. Tile Mound-Builders were Indians. 
In various parts of the United States, especially in the 
Ohio valley, there are interesting mounds built upon geo- 
metrical lines, and containing pottery and other relics of the 
builders and occupants. These mounds have caused much 

discussion. Until recently 
historians have thought that 




Indian Housework Baskets. 



peculiar race of human beings who came from Asia to our 
country many centuries ago, and left these mounds along 
their path through the land. However, to-day it is more 
commonly believed that some Indian tribes rose in intelli- 
gence and industry, and developed the culture represented 
in the mounds and their buried treasures. Wars with more 



THE DECLINE OF INDIAN CULTURE. 137 



savage tribes finally destroyed the mound-building Indians. 
This belief is in accord with various other evidences that 
indicate the decline of Indian culture at the time of the 
discovery of America by the Europeans". 

§ 9. The Indians Could Rise No Higher. 

The Indians of the United States presented such ex- 
tremes and peculiarities of civil society and of savagery 
as to make an understanding of their qualities by no means 
easy. As modern America has in it towns and persons of 
many various stages of development in intelligence, good- 
ness, wealth, so in less degree did the Indian tribes and 
individuals differ from each other. Many tribes carried on 
war with terrible cruelty ; but they usually elected their 
chiefs and decided in council whether or not to go upon 
the "warpath." Their community-life was usually quiet 
and orderly. They had many reasonable ideas of religion 
and morality. To us their condition seems a singular 
mixture of superstition and of intelligence, of culture and 
of barbarism, of good and of evil. But the extremes of the 
civilization of the white men who have replaced the red 
are even greater. There is no more interesting feature of 
Indian life than the " totem " or emblem of tribe and clan 
with the many peculiar customs attached to it. An Indian 
husband belonged after marriage to the clan of his wife, 
and came under the protection of her " totem," — bear, 
wolf, lizard, hawk. The position of an Indian girl was 
apparently that of a slave. Yet she could adopt a brother 
from another clan, who thereupon left his family " totem " 
to take hers. The essence of their religion was a dutiful 
respect for the powers of Nature as symbolized by the 



138 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



" totems." The red man of America represented the high- 
est culture attainable by a single race that came in contact 
with no other races. The white people of Europe repre- 
sented the culture of several races, Teutonic, Mediterra- 
nean, Alpine, in rivalry with each other. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. How long have the aboriginal people lived in America? What 
opinions are held as to their original coming to America ? 

2. What people were most numerous here in 1492 ? What were some 
of the things these people knew how to do ? 

3. How numerous were the Aztecs ? Where did they live ? What 
was their way of trying to please their gods of the sky ? 

4. Were the Indians of the north temperate zone highly developed in 
the industrial arts ? Were they numerous ? 

5. Who were the Algonquins ? the Iroquois ? 

6. Were the Indians at peace with each other in 1492 ? 

7. Was the aboriginal population in our land increasing in 1492 ? 

8. Were the Indians good farmers ? Were they honest and daring ? 

9. What were their good qualities ? 

10. Were any Indians successfully enslaved ? 

11. Are there as many Indians now as there were in 1492 ? 

12. Of what advantage to the early colonists were the red men of the 
forest — in agriculture, in warfare, in pioneering ? 

13. Discuss the mound-builders. 

14. What extremes of culture and savagery were represented by the 
Indians ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Source Readers, Vol I., pp. 91-130 : Indian life. 

Starr's American Indians. 

Parkman's Jesuits, and Pontiac, especially Introductions. 

George Bancroft's United States, Vol. I., pp. 382-395. (Part II., Chap. 

V.): The Red Men of New England. 
Thorpe's History of American People, Chap. I. : The Wild Men of the 

Forests. 
Harper's Encyclopedia United States History : Indians, Iroquois, Indian 

Problem. 
H. H. Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific Coast. 



THE INDIANS. 139 



Hazard and Dutton's Indians and Pioneers. 

Fiske's United States History, Chap. I. : Ancient America. 

Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, and Conquest of Peru : Aztecs, Incas. 

Powell's Indian Languages. 

Larned's History for Ready Reference, Vol. I., pp. 78-108: American 

Aborigines. 
Farnham's Life of Parkman: Various passages regarding his sojourn 

among the Indians. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR CONSIDERATION AND IN- 
VESTIGATION BY INDIVIDUALS OR THE CLASS. 

1. The Culture of the Incas : Government of the Incas. 

2. The Aztec City of Mexico. 

3. The Aztec Religion. 

4. Highways and Buildings of the Incas. 

5. The " Long-house " and Village-life of the Iroquois. 

6. The Powhatan Confederacy. 

7. The Village of Secotan. 

8. The Algonquin Language. 

9. The Wars between the Hurons and the Iroquois. 

10. Indian Corn and its Cultivation. 

11. Indian Runners and their Great Exploits. 

12. Indian Basketry. 

13. Indian Babies — Girls and Boys. 

14. The Indians and their Reception of the White Men : in Virginia ; 
in Massachusetts ; in the Hudson Valley ; in Canada ; in the Mississippi 
Valley. 

15. The Indians as Teachers of the White Men. 

16. The Mounds in the Ohio Valley : Forms ; Contents. 

Note 1. — The subject of the American aborigines, with the many sub- 
topics, is far more interesting than it is important in our history. After the 
early years their own history affected to only a small degree the progress of 
the transplanted white race in America. So abundant is the material upon 
this subject, both in print and in pictures, that it affords opportunity in 
arousing the imagination of boys and girls as nothing else does. School 
compositions with drawings are desirable. See Suggestions to Teachers. 

Note 2. — Persons of the white race must be fair to the Indians as well 
as to the Negroes in all estimates of their capacity for education. The 
great ruler, Porfirio Diaz, President of Mexico, is a full-blooded Indian. 



140 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 

CHAPTER II. 

INDIAN WARS. 
§ 1. The Fequots were Almost Entirely Destroyed. 

The first considerable war between the red and the white 
men was in New England. The Peqnots in 1636 lived in 
or near the valley of the Thames River, in what is now the 
State of Connecticut. They were the fiercest of the Indians 
upon the Atlantic coast. To punish them for murdering 
a few whites, the Massachusetts Bay government sent an 
expedition against them, which accomplished nothing more 
than stirring them up to further outrages. A larger force, 
consisting of a hundred white men and nearly as many 
Mohegans, who were enemies of the Pequots, surprised by 
night the main body of the Pequots in a stockaded fort 
near what is now Stonington, set fire to their palisades and 
wigwams, and killed four hundred of them. Only five 
escaped. The other Pequots soon afterwards were either 
killed or scattered, and for forty years from that time there 
was general peace between the red and the white men 
throughout New England. 

§ 2. King Philip Resented the Presence of the Colonists. 

The destruction of the Pequots left several warlike In- 
dian tribes in New England, — the Pokanokets and the 
Wampanoags of Massachusetts, the Narragansetts of Rhode 
Island, and the Nipmucks of central Massachusetts, who 
gradually grew hostile, though they had been friendly. 
Massasoit, who so greatly helped the Pilgrims in their first 
days, was dead, and new generations of white men and of 
red men were upon the stage of action. Although the 



KIXG PHILIP S WAP. 



141 



learned John Eliot preached to many tribes, translated the 
Bible for them, and even converted four thousand Indians 
to Christianity, 
most of them re- 
sented the progress 
of a strange civili- 
zation and the 
advance of a su- 
perior popula- 
tion. Philip, son 
of Massasoit, was 
a bitter enemy of 
the " praying In- 
dians," as Eliot's 
converts were 
called, and r e- 
garded them as 
traitors to the 
cause of the abo- 
rigines. He also 
believed, without any evidence, that Iris older brother's death 
at Plymouth had been caused by poison. He knew that the 
crowding in of the whites upon the lands of the Indians 
meant an end to their free life. Too intelligent to desire 
war, he was ready to accept it when it came. 




7 , m \ 



\'rucrWl6 



Metacoma, "King Philip/' and His Mark or Signature. 



§ 3. A Great War Raged, 1675-1676. 

One of the Indian converts, John Sassamon, who had 

been educated at Harvard College and was especially, 

trusted by King Philip, told the governor of Plymouth 

that Philip was planning war, and in revenge some of the 



142 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



Wampauoags murdered him. For this murder the Plym- 
outh government hung the murderers. Even then Philip, 
knowing the strength of the whites, hesitated to attack 

them. But his followers 
were less foresighted. To 
avenge the hanging, the 
Wampanoags burned 
four villages in the col- 
ony, and war raged. The 
Wampanoags were de- 
feated ; but Philip escaped 
to the Nipmucks, who 
made warpaths through 
the region from Boston to the Connecticut River, and 
persuaded the JSarragan setts and other tribes to join them. 
The Narragansett chief, Canonchet, gathered them to- 
gether, three thousand in all, in a palisaded fort near what 
is now South Kingston, Rhode Island. There they were 
attacked by a thousand white men, w T ho killed a thou- 
sand of the Indians, and took the rest captive. In the con- 
flict Canonchet was slain. Philip himself was killed by a 
treacherous Indian. His captive child was sold as a slave 
in Bermuda. 




§ 4. After 1676 Peace Reigned in New England. 

This great war was not induced by any peculiar severity 
of the people of New England toward the Indians. On 
the contrary, the colonists had bought their lands of the 
Indians and had treated them fairly. It was an inevitable 
war, due to the fact that the civilized white men and the 
wild red men could not both occupy the same region. 



INDIAN WARS. 143 



At its close, twelve colonial towns had been wiped out 
of existence, and forty more had been visited with fire 
and tomahawk. Only Connecticut had escaped without 
bloodshed, for the Mohegans, who lived there, were peace- 
able and friendly. More than a thousand white men had 
perished, and many hundred women and children. So 
terrible had been the losses that Ireland raised money for 
the relief of Plymouth. But the Indians of New England 
never rose in a body again to attack the colonists. Many 
of the captives were sold into slavery in the West Indies 
and elsewhere, in pursuance of a course of action that in 
all history has been a pathetic feature of race-struggles. 
Some tribes migrated westward, and others northward. 
Many individuals, influenced by the preaching of Eliot, 
adopted the ways and dress of the white men, and, living 
in the colonial towns and villages, were soon absorbed in 
the general mass of the population. At the beginning of 
the war there were fifty-rive thousand white people and 
thirty thousand Indians in New England. Within a gen- 
eration the tribal Indians were so few and so remote as to 
cease to be important in New England life. 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What was the cause of the Pequot War ? 

2. What were its results ? 

3. What was the opinion of the son of Massasoit regarding the white 
men ? 

4. Who was John Eliot ? What did he do for the Indians ? 

5. What was the cause of King Philip's War ? 

6. How did the war end ? 

7. What were the results of the war ? 

8. Name some of the important Indian tribes in New England. 



144 PKOGKESS OF THE COLONIES. 



ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION 
BY INDIVIDUALS OR THE CLASS. 

1. The Indians of New England. 

2. Indian Forts and Villages. 

3. The Life of King Philip. 

4. The Life of John Eliot: Eliot's " Praying Indians." 

5. The Causes of Indian Opposition to the White Men. 

6. Indian Leaders. 

7.; How Goffe, the Regicide, Saved Hadley. 

8. Indians as Slaves. 

9. The Lives of Massasoit, Squanto, Sassamon, Canonchet, and of 
other early New England Indians whose names are notable in history be- 
cause of some individual qualities or services. 

10. What Differences Might there Have Been in New England History 
without any Indians ? 



SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Fiske's Beginnings of New England : Indians, Pequots, Narragansetts. 

Hubbard's Trouble with the Indians. 

Burton's Indians of New England. 

Hazard and Dutton's Indians and Pioneers. 

Harper's Encyclopedia of United States History : Pequots; King Philip. 

Thwaites's Colonies : pp. 136-7 ; pp. 170-2. 

Bancroft's United States History, Vol. I., pp. 266-7, and pp. 382-394. 

(Part I., Chap. XII. , and Part II. , Chap. V.) 
Old South Leaflets, Nos. 21, 52, 87, 88. 
See also references at end of preceding Chapter. 



ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1620. Settlement at Plymouth. 

1636. Rhode Island and Connecticut are begun. 

1636-7. The Pequot War. 

1675-6. King Philip's War. 

Note. — In 1672 occurred the great London fire when Boston raised 
funds for the relief of the survivors. 



EARLY LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 145 

CHAPTER III. 

EARLY COLONIAL LIFE. 

§ 1. The Second Generation of the Colonists Developed New- 
Characteristics, Due to Changed Conditions of Life. 

The disposition of most of the early colonists, whether 
they came from England or Holland, France or Germany, 
Ireland or Scotland, was to live in the New World as they 
had lived in the Old. Few wished completely to abandon 
the old ways. Those who did wish to forget the Old World 
often became fur-traders and hunters in the wilds and back- 
woods, and were for long periods of time lost to civilized 
life. As for the others, not even the wealthiest of them 
could reproduce here their former modes of existence. The 
climate of the various parts of the Atlantic coast was differ- 
ent from the climate of any country from which the colonists 
came. Most of the agricultural products were different. 
Here they had plenty of land, either free to all, or so cheap 
as to be within the reach of all persons, not slaves or bond- 
servants. The pursuits by which the colonists secured their 
means of living were different from their old occupations. 

A few years of life here greatly modified the immigrants 
themselves, and the children of the immigrants generally 
lacked the culture, the moderation of thought, and the set 
habits of their parents. They were more ignorant of books 
and learning, and were more erratic in thought and action, 
than their fathers, but they were also more energetic and 
more progressive. The New World gave mental freedom 
and moral self-reliance, to all the whites of the second gen- 
eration. 



146 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



§ 2. "We Reap the Gains of the Struggles of the Early Settlers. 

This spirit of self-reliance and of individual liberty 
marked the change in the characters of the early colo- 
nists after the great ocean had separated them from their 
mother-countries. The early modes of life here are very 
interesting to us who look back at them from the vantage- 
ground of the twentieth century. Without the efforts 
of the first settlers we could never have reached what we 
are. They learned slowly but surely what freedom in a 
land of great natural wealth means in the development of 
human character. 

§ 3. Social Classes were Distinct. 

It is not possible to go into many details. Life in New 
England varied from life in New York, and Pennsylvania 
was equally different from Virginia and South Carolina. 
Yet everywhere were certain social classes that would now 
seem very strange to us. There were in politics the free, 
who could vote, and the unfree, who for various causes 
could not vote. In New England church membership was a 
requirement. In Virginia land-ownership or lease-holding 
was necessary. In the South, particularly in Virginia, the 
distinction between social classes was much more marked 
than in the North. The great planters had hundreds of 
dependants black and white, and the affairs of government 
were wholly in the hands of the planter class. In all the 
colonies, however, there were the gentlemen who wore fine 
clothes and fine linen, the respectable farmers and mechanics 
of much plainer dress, the numerous white bond-servants, 
and the still more numerous Negro slaves. The gentle- 
men ruled in Church and State, formed " Society," and 



SOCIETY WAS DIVIDED INTO CLASSES. 



147 



had large households with more servants than were really 
needed, for wealthy people habitually practiced great dis- 
play. Those who worked kept very long hours, but they 
did not work under pressure, as it is necessary nowadays to 
work in our modern factories, mills, shops, and mines. 
Even farm work was easier two centuries ago than it is 
now when there is heavy machinery to manage. 



§ 4. The Modern Comforts of Life were Unknown. 

Perhaps it will help us to realize our progress in material 
things to notice what our colonial forefathers of the seven- 
teenth century did not have. 

They had no friction matches, no gas, 
no mineral oil for lighting, no electri- 
city, no coal. Instead, the colonists 
kept their wood fires overnight by bank- 
ing them with ashes ; for light they 
burned tallow candles, or, toward the 
end of the seventeenth century, whale- 
oil; they burned wood in sticks for 
cooking, and in great logs for warmth. 
They had no factories for making any 
kind of cloth. Their clothes were nearly 
all made out of cloth woven and spun 
at home. Cotton was very scarce and 
dear, and poor people wore outer garments of leather. 
Travelers went on horseback or afoot, for there were almost 
no roads for wagons, or wagons for roads. Bridges were 
yet to be built, and travelers must wade the fords, or swim 
across streams and rivers. There were no side-walks in 
the cities and towns. 




Oldest Stove in America. 



148 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



§ 5. At the Beginnings of American Civilization. 

There were no great cities with great buildings, such as 
libraries, city halls, schoolhouses, factories. There were 
not even prisons, but offenders were punished by exposure 
to public scorn in stocks at cross-roads or in market-places. 

Even the churches 
were small buildings, 
for congregations of at 
most two or three 
hundred people. The 
elegant homes of the 
seventeenth century 
would seem small and 
poor now, except in a few 
articles, such as needle- 
work and wood-carving. 
Books were very rare. 
Even Harvard College had but a few hundred. Ministers 
were the only learned men. Skilful physicians and surgeons 
were unknown. There were very few lawyers, to draw 
up titles to real estate, to prosecute offenders in court, 
and to advise men in their business affairs. Schools there 
were, but for only a small part of the year, and for a part 
of the children and youth, and the teachers were not edu- 
cated for the work. All things were at their beginnings. 




Punishment in the Public Stocks. 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What was the influence of the New World upon the immigrants ? 

2. In what respects did the people of the second generation of the 
colonists differ from those born in the Old World ? 

3. What was the peculiar spirit of the settlers born and reared here ? 

4. Into what social classes were the early colonists divided ? 



EARLY COLONIAL LIFE. 149 



5. What was the general style of life of the wealthy ? 

6. Describe an early colonial home, without " modern conveniences." 

7. Describe a colonial village without "modern improvements." 

8. What reason have we for saying that "All things were at their 
beginnings " in America in the seventeenth century ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Source Readers. Colonial Children. 

Earle's Home Life in Colonial Bays. 

Brooks's Historic Americans, Chap. I : John Winthrop. 

Caldwell's American History, pp. 1-24 : Early conditions. 

Wendell's Literary History of America, pp. 13-58. (Bk. I.) The Seventeenth 

Century. 
Lawton's American Literature, Chap. I. : The Pioneers. Chap. II. : The 

Seventeenth Century. 
Thorpe's History of the American People, pp. 34-43 ; pp. 47-96 : Slavery; 

Colleges ; Social Life. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION. 

1. The Employments of the Early Colonists. 

2. Old Buildings Dating from the Seventeenth Century. 

3. Child-life in the Seventeenth Century in American Towns ; in the 
Country ; in School ; at Home. 

4. Slaves: Bond-servants: Apprentices. — Their Treatment; their 
Hope of Freedom ; their Opportunities to Gain Education and Property. 

5. The Households of the Wealthy : Mode of Life ; Social Position. 

6. A Day in a Home : in New England ; in New York ; in Pennsyl- 
vania ; in Virginia ; in Charleston. 

7. Harvard College Student-life in the Seventeenth Century. 




Massachusetts Pine-tree Shilling, 1652. 



150 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



CHAPTER IV. 

COLONIAL LIFE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 
BEFORE COLONIAL UNION. 

§ 1. English History Affected American History Vitally. 

Until the great War of Independence, our country was 
only a collection of colonies, all of which, after the English 
seized New Amsterdam in 1664, belonged to England, 
three thousand miles across the sea. Many of the events 
in Europe affected the colonies vitally. One of the most 
important of these European events was the accession of 
William III to the English throne, 1689. King William 
came from Holland, so that, while Holland had lost only 
a few years before her American colony, her ruler became 
king of England and of all the English colonies. William 
III was one of England's best kings : he was just and fair 
in most of his dealings with the English colonies across the 
sea. But in that age to get accurate information promptly 
was even for kings almost impossible. 

§ 2. From 1689 to 1754 was a Period of Preparation for a 
United Nation. 

1688-9 is the date of the "English Revolution" which 
brought King William to the throne, and made the English 
government much more democratic than it had been before. 
From that time to 1754, when the agitation for colonial 
union began, was a period of much interest in our American 
colonial history. In New England and the Middle Colo- 
nies it afforded a transition from rude pioneer life in all the 
settlements to far more orderly and prosperous conditions. 
This period before colonial union was marked by frequent 



THE PEOPLE IMPROVED IN AVEALTH AND CULTURE. 151 



wars, in which the colonists were involved because of their 
dependence upon England, and by a striking development 
in the intellectual life of the people and in the institutions 
of church and government. It began with that most 
wretched delusion of witchcraft, 1692, which is a blot upon 
the history of Salem in Massachusetts, and ended with the 
discovery of the nature of electricity, 1752, by Benjamin 
Franklin in Philadelphia. It is not strange that the colo- 
nists in Massa- 
chusetts perse- 
cuted for a time 
some old women 
as witches, the 
wealthy and edu- 
cated as well as 
the poor and ig- 
norant, and even 
condemned them 
to death after a 
form of trial in court, for England was even more excited 
at this time regarding witchcraft. Those were unscientific 
days, when people did not know what we now know about 
the nature of the human mind and the physical causes of 
disease. Exact science began many years later with such 
men as Franklin. Many of its greatest triumphs have been 
within the memory of men now living. 




§ 3. Only One College was Founded Before the English 
Revolution. 

In the eighteenth century, colleges, schools, and acade- 
mies rapidly increased in number and improved in quality. 



152 



PROGEESS OF THE COLONIES. 



Harvard, 1636, was the first New World college ; then to 
this were added several more colleges: — William and Mary 

in Virginia, 1693, 
founded in honor 
of the great Eng- 
lish king and of the 
queen in whose 
right William III 
ruled ; Yale in 
Connecticut, 
1701; Princeton 
in New Jersey, 
1746; and King's 
College, now Co- 
lumbia, in New 
York, which be- 
Progress in edu- 




Yale College, 1793. 



grammar school the same year, 
as far more rapid in the first and comparatively 
half of the eighteenth century than in the stormy 
years of the latter half. 



gan as a 
cation w 
peaceful 



§ 4. Law and Journalism Became Successful Professions. 

This period saw the development of the legal profession, 
for there were very few lawyers in the colonies during the 
seventeenth century. Newspapers appeared early in the 
eighteenth century. The Boston Neivs Teller started in 
1701, but soon ceased publication. In 1722, The New 
England C our ant was begun by James Franklin, the uncle 
of Benjamin Franklin ; this was the first journal in America 
that dared to criticise prominent men and important 
measures in government and religion. 



MANY WERE CONVERTED TO NOBLER LIVES. 153 



1. The New England Colonies. 

§5. A Religious Awakening Led to Moral Progress. 

The early part of the eighteenth century saw a religious 
movement known as " The Great Awakening." It began 
in Northampton, Massachusetts, with the preaching of 
Reverend Solomon Stoddard, and was greatly extended 
and intensified by the eloquence of Reverend Jonathan 
Edwards, whose sermons shook New England with a moral 
earthquake, and whose doctrines were discussed in colonies 
as far away as Virginia. This " Awakening " made many 
converts, but caused others to leave the Puritan meeting- 
houses to establish new denominations. It resulted also 
in encouraging the separation of Church and State, because 
no longer did all the prominent people attend the one 
church in town and village. Many colonists, breaking away 
from former customs and practices, were living in the New 
World as they would have been ashamed to live in the 
Old World. To them this revival was of great moral value. 

§ 6. The Ocean Trade Became Extensive. 

The eighteenth century saw in New England a splendid 
growth of trade in many lines. The fisheries were de- 
veloped, and ship-building became an important industry. 
The fleets of trading-vessels from Newport, Salem, and 
Boston, disregarding the navigation laws of the mother- 
country, sailed on all the seas of the world. In 1713 Captain 
Andrew Robinson of Gloucester in Massachusetts built the 
first schooner ever made, a type of vessel now universally 
recognized as more generally useful than any other sailing- 
ship. Whaling became a great occupation. In the towns 



154 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 




there were many distilleries to convert West Indies mo- 
lasses into rum. Many persons engaged in the slave trade, 
and even in piracy upon the high seas. Their ships went 
freely into and out of all American ports. Nine of every 
ten Negroes died from inhuman treatment before reaching 

America. The New 
World has grown 
better as well as 
wiser since those 
times when West- 
ern and Central 
Africa was made a 
bloody hunting- 
ground of slaves for 
American profit. 

§ 7. Banking was a 
Failure. 

It was in this 

period that the first 

efforts were made 

in Massachusetts 

to establish banks, 

first in 1714, and 

again in 1741, 

Paper Money of Massachusetts Colony. g^ e ff orts failed. 

Real estate was made the basis for the issue of the bank notes 
or bills, but in practice it was found that real estate prop- 
erties were valued too high, and could not be sold quickly 
enough to meet commercial needs. Very little metallic 
money was in circulation, and domestic business was greatly 
hindered in its development for want of a reliable currency. 



<^°C «// ) erf 

lHlO Ioientecl B i[ [ of Iwcmt/N^ 

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G o lamy 1 o tk e-IoileiTo r ika It h e~ ki va I ue^2*> 
e^ualto rnoney 8c fkallke-^ cc or d\ngly^ 
acceptedty the, Irea. furer a/>a d Receiver x 
Tub ordinate- to kvm mallPuklick p ayTri? 
a/nxiJor aviy Sto(k aia/nyti/rrLe, i/rutke^2?© 
Trea.Cx.wy. Bolt ore ln^ New-E ngla/ftcU 
FeWary tke tktrcU 1^0 o>By Order of 
tae^ de/rie/ral G,oii/r( 



Comiice 




A POSTAL SYSTEM WAS ESTABLISHED, 1710. 155 



2. The Middle Colonies. 

§ 8. New York Became the Center of a Regular Mail-Service 
for All Colonies. 

During the same period, 1689-1754, there was in the 
middle colonies a development similar to that in New Eng- 
land. There was a marked commercial growth, due largely 
to an increase in the products of the soil and to the 
flourishing trade in furs with the Indians. Early in the 
eighteenth century New York became the center for a 
colonial postal system. In 1692 King William had ap- 
pointed " a postmaster-general for the northern provinces," 
as the phrase was, and in 1710 actual operations were 
begun by the fixing of postal rates, requiring for the mail- 
carriers free ferry across all rivers, and compelling by legal 
process the payment for all mail-charges. Henceforth, the 
horse and postman became more and more familiar figures 
in the colonies. Colonial union could never have been 
secured without the development of the post^service for the 
inter-communication of sentiments, ideas, needs, and plans. 

§9. Freedom of the Press was Secured. 

While Massachusetts was the first colony in which a 
journalist dared to criticise government and public officials, 
New York was the first colony in which such criticism was 
judicially established as the right of free men. In our 
country, that " freedom of the press " which is essential to 
democracy, and which we all nowadays consider as natural 
as freedom to draw breath, was not admitted by the ruling 
officers until 1735. At this time of great public agitation 



156 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



for equal political rights for all, Peter Zenger, a German 
printer, published in New York the first newspaper devoted 
to the advocacy and defense of the common people's rights. 
In his paper he attacked the governor of the province, who 
burned Zenger's printing-shop and arrested him as a law- 
breaker. The jury at the trial, supported by the learned 
judges, acquitted Zenger, and this acquittal was accepted 
everywhere as marking a new era in journalism and in 
politics. Gouverneur Morris called it "the morning star of 
liberty that revolutionized America." Zenger's attorney, 
Andrew Hamilton, the foremost lawyer in America, had 
argued that truth justifies any attack on rulers, and for 
his success in court a grateful people presented him in 
ancient fashion with the freedom of the city in a gold 
snuff-box. 

§ 10. Benjamin Franklin was a Commercial and Political 

Leader. 

From 1730 to 1745 Benjamin Franklin was industriously 
at work in Philadelphia. He defended freedom of speech 
and freedom of the press, started the academy which later 
became the University of Pennsylvania, and began subscrip- 
tion libraries. His great career as a business man, inventor, 
and statesman was possible only in the largest town of all 
the colonies, and shows the commercialism, the toleration, 
and the intellectual progress of the colony, which permitted 
the development of the first generally useful citizen in all 
the colonies. Older than George Washington, Benjamin 
Franklin was later to be recognized as second only to 
" the Father of his Country " among all Americans of the 
eighteenth century. 



THE GREATEST COLONY WAS PENNSYLVANIA. 157 



§ 11. Pennsylvania was the Wealthiest of All the Colonies. 

Of all the colonies Pennsylvania maintained the best 
relations with the intellectual wild men of the forests, 
making trea- 
ties with the In- 
dians that were 
kept upon both 
sides through- 
out this period. 
In wealth the 
leading citi- 
zens of Penn- 
sylvania 
ranked with 
the land-own- 
i n g patroons 
of New York, 
the planters of 
Virginia, and 
the ship-own- 
ers of New 
England. The 
colony, in com- 
parison with 
the others, was 
the richest, 
largest, most 

orderly, and apparently the happiest. Here grew the popu- 
lation that became a wedge to separate the nation into free 
and slave sections. The Friends and the Moravians of 
Pennsylvania from the first regarded slavery as sin. 



.£..ub /£**£ Un*A* .JZu*. *J £^> 

4^ JUL u+ATzeJjte £.& toft* <r%L £j 




158 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



§ 12. The Middle Colonies Learned Self-Government. 
Conditions of life in Delaware were similar to those in 
Pennsylvania, from which it was separated in government 
in 1703. In New Jersey, still mainly an agricultural 
colony, there was a peaceful development, scarcely disturbed 
by the few political discussions between rulers and citizens. 
The most important event was the union of East and West 
Jersey as the one colony of New Jersey in 1702. The 
facts of its history, while not important enough for detailed 
account, are important in their general nature as a part of 
that wonderful development of all the colonists in political 
capacity, which later Edmund Burke, the great English 
statesman, pronounced in Parliament as the most striking 
characteristic of the Englishmen across the sea. 

3. The Southern Colonies. 

§ 13. Georgia was the Last Colony to be Established, 1733. 

In 1689 there were three southern colonies, — Maryland, 
Virginia, and the Carolinas. The Carolinas were in their 
actual social condition two different communities, North 
Carolina being agricultural, and South Carolina being 
largely interested in sea-ventures. As in Virginia the 
population was thinly distributed in North Carolina, but the 
land was not, as in Virginia, farmed in large plantations, 
but rather in small holdings. South Carolina had one im- 
portant town. Its rice-plantations grew large like the 
tobacco-plantations of Virginia. Another colony, Georgia, 
was to be added in 1733, more than fifty years later in its 
establishment than Pennsylvania. Georgia, indeed, at the 
time of the Revolution, 1775, was very largely composed 
of foreign-born citizens. 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES DEVELOPED SLOWLY. 159 



§ 14. The People of the Southern Colonies were Isolated 
from One Another. 

In the New England colonies there was everywhere a 
general inter-communication of people and of ideas. So, 
too, the middle colonies, even in the early part of the eigh- 
teenth century, had many mutual associations of families 
and of interests. But the southern colonies were isolated 
from each other, a fact due to their waterways, their mode 
of agriculture, and, in the cases of the Carolinas and Georgia, 
their late and slow development, 




*jg£H-'' - 



William and Mary College, 1723. 



§ 15. Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina we:e Aristocratic. 
North Carolina and Georgia were Democratic. 

After 1688 Virginia settled down to tobacco-raising and 
to the development of that social aristocracy to which the 
nation was later to owe such leaders as Washington, Madi- 
son, and Jefferson. Virginia was not, however, wholly 
aristocratic, for upon a small farm in one of her frontier 



160 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



counties she was rearing, in the middle of the seventeenth 
century, Patrick Henry of mixed Welsh and Scotch blood, 
a man of the people, the greatest orator of the Revolution. 
Maryland upon Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac River 
grew like Virginia aristocratic and prosperous. Even as 
late as the end of this period it contained no commercial 
town of any size, but was almost wholly devoted to agricul- 
ture. But North Carolina was a democratic community of 
small farmers, far more like New Jersey or New Hampshire 
than like its neighbors. 

§ 16. Immigrations, War, and Migrations Filled the Years 
with Affairs of Interest. 

In 1707 a large number of Huguenots emigrated from 
France to North Carolina, and in 1709 even larger numbers 
of Swiss and Germans came over. In 1711—12 was fought a 
war with the Tuscaroras, an Iroquois tribe, who, after their 
defeat, moved north to join the Iroquois Five Nations in 
New York, thus forming the Six Nations, who befriended 
the English in the terrible French wars of the eighteenth 
century. This was followed by another addition of Euro- 
peans, the Scotch-Irish from the north of Ireland, and the 
Scotch-Highlanders, from whose descendants was to come 
Andrew Jackson, the most potent individual in American 
politics in the democratic national period succeeding that 
of the aristocratic Virginians. At the end of this colonial 
period, only Pennsylvania and Virginia exceeded North 
Carolina in population. It was overcrowding of popula- 
tion that led soon after to the moving 1 of these Carolinians 
and Virginians across the mountains. Unlike Maryland, 
Virginia, and South Carolina, North Carolina had no great 



GEORGIA WAS FOUNDED IS 1733. 161 



number of Negro slaves. In this respect and in the general 
nature of its white population it resembled New Hampshire 
more than any middle or southern colony. 

§ 17. Diversity of Interests Led to a Division of the Carolinas. 

In South Carolina rice and indigo culture created a need 
for the labor of Negroes, who were soon more numerous 
than the white population, and forced the development of an 
upper class of the whites. In 1729, disputes in England 
among the many proprietors, and in America between the 
proprietors and the colonists, and the difference in the 
characteristics of the northern and southern sections, caused 
King George to make the Carolinas into two royal provinces. 

§ 18. Oglethorpe was the Philanthropic Founder of Georgia. 

The motives that led General James Oglethorpe to 
found Georgia were of the same unselfish, philanthropic 
kind that brought the Calverts to Maryland, and William 
Penn to Pennsylvania ; but the later times made a differ- 
ent kind of enterprise necessary. To this man of wealth, 
reputation, and generosity, King George II granted the tract 
between the Carolinas and Spanish Florida. Spain did not 
admit the right of England to the soil, but permitted the 
sending and establishment of the colony, 1733. 

§ 19. Georgia became Discontented Under the Moral Regula- 
tions of Oglethorpe, and was Made a Royal Colony. 

The founder gathered together debtors from English 
prisons, victims of religious and political persecution upon 
the continent of Europe, and poor people, excluding only 
the unworthy and the ambitionless poor. He brought his 



162 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 

settlers to the Savannah River at great cost to himself, 
and gave each an allotment of land, rent free, for ten years. 
Slavery was forbidden, and rum was excluded. But the 
colonists had no vote, and fretted under the paternal des- 
potism of Oglethorpe. In 1752 because of political dis- 
turbances Georgia was made a ro} T al colony. Slaves and 
rum were admitted, and Georgia began to follow in the path 
of South Carolina. Savannah became a rival of Charleston 
as a trading-port. The population, largely English, Scotch, 
and German, increased so rapidly that the colony soon be- 
came valuable as an English outpost against the Spanish 
settlements in Florida. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What recompense did the Dutch finally receive for their loss of 
New Amsterdam ? 

2. What change is marked in colonial life at the period of the '• Eng- 
lish Revolution" ? 

3. Characterize the period in the colonies between the Salem witch- 
craft delusion and the discovery of the nature of electricity. 

4. What may be said of education in the first half of the eighteenth 
century ? 

5. What colleges were founded in this period of development ? 

6. What may be said of law and journalism in these years ? Does 
the rise of these professions suggest changes in the general wealth and cul- 
ture of the people ? What changes ? 

7. What was "The Great Awakening " ? Why was it needed ? 

8. Who built the first schooner to sail the high seas ? What was its 
influence on America's commerce ? 

9. What cause led to the failure of the early Massachusetts banks ? 

10. When was the postal system begun ? What were some of its feat- 
ures and results ? 

11. What is meant by "freedom of the press " ? Under what circum- 
stances was it first secured in America ? 

12. How important in our history was the acquittal of Zenger ? 



BEFORE COLONIAL UNION. 163 



13. Who was the first generally useful citizen in all the colonies ? 
What were some of his early public services? 

14. What were the relations of the Pennsylvanians with the Indians ? 

15. Compare Pennsylvania in the middle of the century and in the 
middle of the country with the other colonies. 

16. What was the opinion of Edmund Burke regarding Americans ? 

17. Compare North and South Carolina in respect to the people's chief 
occupation. 

18. Compare the northern and middle colonies with the southern in 
1700 in respect to the association of the colonists with each other. 

19. What southern colonies were chiefly aristocratic ? What demo- 
cratic ? 

20. What movements of population were there in the first half of the 
eighteenth century in the southern colonies ? 

21. In 1754 what were the three colonies with the largest populations? 

22. Compare North Carolina with the other colonies. 

23. What led to the division of the Carolinas in 1729? 

24. Who was the founder of Georgia ? 

25. What was the history of the colony before the Revolution ? 



SUGGESTED READINGS 

Hart's Contemporaries : Vol. II., pp. 35-103, pp. 110-149, pp. 153-164, pp. 
171-181, pp. 1881201, pp. 205-219, pp. 224-271, pp. 276-307. 

Thwaites's Colonies: Chaps. V., VIII., X., XIII., XIV. Especially XIV. 

Morse's Benjamin Franklin, pp. 2-58 : Rising of a Poor Boy in the Colo- 
nial World. 

Thorpe's History of American People: Chaps. VIII. -IX. 

Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies: Vol. II. 

Thompson's Hand of God in American History, Chaps. II. -III. : Racial 
Elements and Antagonisms. 

Bancroft's History of the United States, Vol. I., pp. 602-613 : Our People 
in 1688. 

Irving's Knickerbocker History of New York. 

Consult the standard encyclopaedias : English Revolution of 1688, Benja- 
min Franklin, the early colleges, Jonathan Edwards, postal system, 
James Oglethorpe, colonial histories of the original thirteen states. 

Harper's Encyclopaedia of United States History. Zenger : Franklin: Ed- 
wards. 



164 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



Macdonald's Select Charters : Vol. I. Second and Third Charters of 
Massachusetts; Navigation Act of 1696; Pennsylvania's Charters, 
etc.; Charter of Georgia. 

Sinith-Dutton Colonies : Colonial Life. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INQUIRY AND DISCUSSION. 

1. King William III, our first Constitutional Monarch. 

2. The Continuance in England of the Witchcraft Delusion forty 
years longer than in America, and the Survival to Modern Times of 
Superstitions regarding the "evil eye." 

3. Eranklin's Discovery of the Nature of Electricity. 

4. Latin and the Other Studies of the Early Colleges ; a Comparison 
of the Eighteenth Century Colleges with Twentieth Century High Schools 
and Colleges ; Ages of Students in College. 

5. Early Schools. 

6. The First Newspapers. 

7. Zenger's Trial. 

8. The Schooner : its Characteristics, its Usefulness. 

9. Whaling. 

10. The West Indian Trade. 

11. Paper Currency in the Eighteenth Century. 

12. Letter-writing and the Post. 

13. Indian Treaties. 

14. The Separation of Pennsylvania and Delaware. 

15. The Union of East and West Jersey. 

16. The Separation of the Carolinas. 

17. In 1750 one-fifth of all the colonists spoke little or no English ; 
one-quarter were Negroes ; scarcely one-half were from England by birth 
or family. Find where the English, the French, the Scotch-Irish, the 
Scotch, the Welsh, the Germans, the Finns, the Negroes, were living. 

18. The Other English Colonies in North America. 

19. The War with the Tuscaroras. 

20. Oglethorpe as a Philanthropist ; as Governor and Proprietor. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1688-9. English Revolution. 
1693. The second college is founded in America. 
1722. The first successful newspaper is established. 
1733. Georgia, the last colony, is founded. 
1735. Freedom of the press is secured. 



INTERCOLONIAL WARS. 



165 



CHAPTER V. 

THE COLONIES AND THE EUROPEAN WARS. 

§ 1. The French Established Forts and Settlements in the 
Mississippi Valley. 

While the English were establishing Virginia, Massachu 
setts Bay, Pennsylvania, and 
the other colonies, the Span- 
ish were maintaining their 
settlements at St. Augnstine 
and Santa Fe, and extending 
their missions in the region 
that we now call the South- 
west and Southern Pacific 
sections of our land. The 
French, too, were active, but 
were confining their energies 
chiefly to Canada. In 1682 
the great explorer La Salle 
had established a fort at 
Kaskaskia upon the Missis- 
sippi River above its con- 
fluence with the Missouri 
River. This was colonized 
in 1695. In 1701 the French 
founded a settlement at Detroit, and another at Mobile more 
than a thousand miles away. Already in 1699 they had es- 
tablished a settlement at Biloxi on the Gulf of Mexico near 
the mouth of the Mississippi. The French then undertook 
to establish and maintain a line of forts and settlements 
from Quebec to Biloxi along the great waterways. 




'#%, 



The French Forts and Settlements, 



166 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 

§ 2. Bankruptcy Retarded Colonial Progress. 

In 1718 the French established New Orleans, and made 
great plans for its immediate future. Unfortunately, just at 
this time John Law, an English adventurer in France, 
secured the favor of the Duke of Orleans, regent during 
the youth of Louis XV, and organized a great company 
to colonize Louisiana, and to develop its natural resources. 
This company, called first the Mississippi Company, and 
later the Company of the Indies, undertook to pay the 
immense national debt of France. It soon collapsed. Its 
bankruptcy retarded the progress of the French schemes in 
the Mississippi valley. However, Fort Chartres was built 
in 1720, and Vincennes was fortified and colonized in 1735. 

Farther north and east many forts were planned, and 
some were built. Among these the most important were 
Fort Frontenac, Fort Oswego and Fort Niagara, which 
together commanded Lake Ontario. With these and all 
other fortified places France meant to hold the interior of 
the continent against England. 

A. French and English Wars. 

1. King William's War — 1689-97. 

§ 3. "War was Waged in the Old World and in the New. 

King Louis XIV of France, " The Grand Monarch," 
said often, "VMat, c'est moil" "The State, 'tis I!" He 
was both tyrant and statesman, and desired above all things 
to extend his empire. He hated especially King William 
III of England, who was also ruler in Holland. Louis 
did not like his views either in religion or in government, 



WILLIAM LEI AND LOUIS XIV. 167 



and wished to conquer England and Holland. William was 
grandson of that Queen Mary for whom Maryland is named, 
and a descendant of that William the Silent whose life 
was one long, magnificent struggle for his people's liberty. 
His family had made Holland a refuge for the oppressed, 
Thither the Pilgrims had fled in 1608. Every tyrant in 
Europe hated Holland. The great Louis sent to Governor 
Frontenac, in Canada, orders to invade and conquer the 
colony of New York. Frontenac was defeated by the Iro- 
quois on the northern borders of the colony, but had his 
revenge in burning Schenectady in 1690, when his Indian 
allies, the Hurons, massacred the inhabitants. Later the 
English commander, Sir William Phipps, took Port Royal 
in Nova Scotia, but failed in an expedition against Quebec. 
By the treaty which ended the war, Port Royal was 
returned to France, 1697. 

2. Queen Anne's War — 1702-13. 
§ 4. England Gained Territory in a Second War, 

After the death of William III of England, 1702, King, 
Louis continued to plot against England and Holland. 
While the brilliant English general Marlborough was fight- 
ing in Europe for Queen Anne against King Louis, the 
Indian allies of France in America devastated several Maine 
settlements, and burned Deerfield in Massachusetts. As in 
King William's War, there were sea-expeditions also, when 
Port Royal was again taken, and another expedition against 
Quebec failed. By the treaty that ended this war, England, 
because of Marlborough's great victories, kept both Nova 
Scotia and Hudson's Bay, reducing somewhat the French 
territory in America. 



168 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



B. Spanish and English War — 1739-42. 

§ 5. England and Spain Fought Regarding Trade. 
In the eighteenth century, as in the seventeenth, each 
nation forbade its colonists to trade with merchants of any 
other nation, and tried to shut out all foreign traders from 
colonial ports. England wished to trade with the Spanish 
colonies in America, and began a war to accomplish that 
purpose. In the course of this war the Spaniards invaded 
the English colony of Georgia, but were defeated and 
driven out by Oglethorpe. The result of the war did not 
remove the commercial restrictions. This was a severe 
blow to the ambitions of American ship-owners. 



A. French and English Wars. 

3. King George's War — 1744-4$- 

§ 6. At the Siege of Louisburg the Colonists Learned European 
Methods of Warfare. 

The next great war began in America, with a very excit- 
ing military and naval 
adventure. The cause 
of the war was the 
old jealousy and ri- 
valry between Eng- 
land and France. The 
strongest fortress in 
the New World was 
Louisburg, 1745. Louisburg, upon 

which the French had spent vast amounts of money and 
Some enterprising English colonists proposed to 



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LOUISBURG TTAS VOX AXD LOST. 



169 



capture it, and partly by their great energy, and partly bj 
good luck, succeeded in 1745. King George of England 
made one of the leaders, Pepperell, a baronet, and another, 
Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, in honor of their ex- 
ploit. By the treaty which ended the war Louisburg was 
given back to France, greatly to the indignation of all the 
colonies. The expedition had brought together soldiers 
from several different colonies, who learned to respect and 
enjoy each other ; and the success showed them that even 
raw colonial troops could overcome trained European sol- 
diers. Not a few of the men who learned how to fight at 
Louisburg, fought afterwards at Bunker Hill. 



§ 7. Colonial Loyalty to England was Chilled. 

The surrenders of Port Royal in 1697 and of Louisburg 
in 1748 by treaty did 
much to alienate the 
colonists from England 
and to separate the 
colonies in Canada from 
those south of Canada. 
Until 1748 England and 
the American colonies 
alike looked upon Can- 
ada and the Carolinas as 
equally dear to the mother-country. England's indifference 
to the desires of the southern American colonies to retain 
the fruits of their victories in Nova Scotia chilled the loyal 
enthusiasm of many colonists. The treaties and the dis- 
content that they caused were symptoms of the growing 
separation between the colonies and the mother-country, 




Halifax EARLY 

1 c FRENCH WARS 

SCALE OF MILES 



170 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



which was indeed only a foster mother to nearly half of the 
colonists. England had become a world-power. The colo- 
nies were becoming independent in spirit, with a desire for 
recognition of their importance. 




General -William Pepperell at Louisburg. 

4. French and Indian War — 1754-1763. 
§ 8. The Seven Years' War in Europe Involved America. 

In their results in America, all the preceding wars were 
unimportant in comparison with the great war that determined 
whether England or France should hold North America. 
This war is called the French and Indian War in America. 
However, it was but a part of the great Seven Years' War 
in Europe, in which Prussia and England fought France, 
Spain, Austria, and Russia. Its American name is due to 
the alliance between the French and most of the Indians 
against the English, though this alliance had been continu- 
ous since the first Europeans came to this country. 



FRANCE HELD THE INLAND REGIONS. 171 



§ 9. French Soldiers and Fur-traders Held the Interior 
of this Continent. 

The Iroquois Indians had held a great region south of 
Lake Ontario, and dominated an even greater area, from 
the Hudson River to the Miami. Hitherto they had kept 
the French out of all this territory, but France already 
controlled the two great waterways, the St. Lawrence, from 
Lake Superior to the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mississippi, 
from its source to the Gulf of Mexico. The French were 
few in numbers compared with the English, but were far 
more active in trying to extend their province. In all 
North America there were scarcely fifteen thousand French 
people. The French soldiers and government officers were 
supported in America by supplies from the French monarch ; 
the development of their region in agriculture and in in- 
dustry was slight. The fur-trade only was profitable. On 
the other hand, the English colonies were self-supporting, 
and very successful in agriculture, industry, and commerce. 
Their numbers in 1750 were more than a million and a half. 

§ 10. George Washington Fired the First Gun in a Great War. 
The French set their hearts upon securing the entire 
Ohio valley. The English colonials viewed this ambition 
with alarm, for their numbers were already large, and they 
foresaw the future need of more land for farming and tim- 
ber. In 1748 the Ohio Company was formed to colonize 
the Ohio valley, and surveyors were sent out who went as 
far west as the site of Louisville, Kentucky. The French 
took alarm, strengthened their outposts, and built new forts 
near the headwaters of the Ohio. In 1753, Governor 
Dinwiddie of Virginia, in reply, sent George Washington, 



172 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



an officer of the colonial militia, to request the French to 
withdraw. Although very young, Washington had as a 
surveyor much experience in the backwoods of Vir- 
ginia. His expedition was fruitless, for the French in- 
tended to stay. In 1754 the English and French met at 

the junction 
of the Mo- 
nongahela 
and Alle- 
ghany Riv- 
ers, the gate- 
way to the 
West, and 
in the en- 
counter the 
English 
were driven 
back. The 
French then 
built Fort 
Duquesne. 
G e o r g e 
Washington 
led a small expedition to drive them away, and was success- 
ful in an engagement in which he fired the first shot in the 
great war. To avenge the death of Jumonville in this 
fight, a body of seven hundred French soldiers was sent 
under De Villiers, who compelled Washington to retire. 
Upon the route of his retreat he built Fort Necessity, and 
there was compelled, July 4, 1754, to surrender to the 
French and Indians, who numbered twice his force. 




The French and Indian War. 



THE EXPEDITION OF BRADDOCK. 173 



§ 11. Braddock Led a Great Expedition. 
In the next year, 1755, England sent ont General Brad- 
dock with two regiments of regular troops. Braddock was 
one of England's finest colonels, and an expert manager of 
men. Before leaving for America, he wrote to his friends 
that English regulars could not succeed in war under such 
new conditions. Like a true soldier, he came hither in 
obedience to orders. He showed his good judgment in 
adding to his staff the young soldier, George Washing- 
ton, and by consulting that wide-awake business man, 
Benjamin Franklin. Then he set out in full regalia, 
and with all the military precautions that the science and 
practice of war had taught him. He failed because he and 
his soldiers were martinets, not marksmen. 

§ 12. The English Suffered a Terrible Defeat near Fort 
Duquesne. 

Very near Fort Duquesne the expedition w T as marching 
with some thirteen hundred men in regular line along the 
path with flankers out upon each side a hundred and fifty 
yards, breaking their way through the woods, when a solid 
mass of a thousand French and Indians was suddenly met 
just in front. The English attacked with artillery, and the 
French gave way while the Indians scattered to the woods. 

The English charged up the path, and the Indians fired 
upon them from among the trees. The English were 
amazed, for they could not see their Indian enemies. With 
broken ranks they retreated. Braddock and Washington 
then came np to join the advance party. Washington ad- 
vised another charge against the French in front, but 
Braddock preferred to call in his flankers, and to form a 
battle line as best he could. Meantime the French, who 



174 PROGKESS OF THE COLONIES. 



numbered but a little more than two hundred men, had 
directed the Indians, six hundred in number, to rush for- 
ward with savage yells through the woods and ravines, 
while the French themselves charged upon the English 
vanguard. Before the fury of the French charge, even 
though terrified by the fearful shrieks of the New World's 
wild men, shooting from the woods their silent, fatal ar- 
rows, the English regulars stood firm. But they did not 
know how to shoot, each man with good aim, nor did they 
know how to retreat face to the front. They thought it 
cowardice to hide behind trees. There Braddock died, 
after a brave fight. There died, too, the French leader De 
Beaujeu. Washington fought like a hero in the thick of 
the battle, but, despite all his efforts, the defeat was over- 
whelming. Even the colonials ran from the pursuing 
savages of the forests. 

Braddock's campaign spread dismay among the colonists. 
Braddock was a martyr to the inflexible militarism of 
Europe that has sent thousands of other brave men like- 
wise to their death. 

§ 13. England Helped Prussia by Compelling France to 
Send Soldiers to America. 

At Crown Point the English were successful. The}' 
won Acadia also, and exiled the colonists, sending some 
as far away as Louisiana. It was at this stage that war 
was formally declared. The greatest figure of the war was 
Frederick the Great of Prussia, whose cause England was 
assisting. England, by compelling France to send many 
soldiers to America, prevented France from giving much 
assistance to her allies, Austria and Prussia. 



A THEMENDOUS BATTLE. 175 

§ 14. The Indians Played an Important Part in the War. 

In 1755, Sir William Johnson, an Irish land-owner and 
fur-trader of the Mohawk valley, with the help of the 
Iroquois, defeated the French at Lake George. He had 
acquired great influence with the Iroquois Six Nations by 
marrying a clever Indian woman. He built Fort William 
Henry to protect the Hudson valley. The French then for- 
tified Ticonderoga. In 1756, Montcalm captured Oswego, 
and acquired control of Lake Ontario. In the next year, 
1757, he captured Fort William Henry; but his military 
triumph was marred by a terrible outrage on the part of his 
Indian allies, chiefly the Hurons, who, against his pro- 
tests, massacred the English garrison after their surrender. 

§ 15. The French Under Montcalm Won at Ticonderoga. 

In the summer of 1758 General Abercrombie with fifteen 
thousand soldiers, English and colonial, attacked Ticonder- 
oga, which was successfully held by the French under 
General Montcalm with but four thousand soldiers. In 
this battle the magnificent British regulars were led again 
and again to useless assaults upon the French fortifications. 
We shall hear of the splendid but unavailing courage of 
the English soldiers at Bunker Hill in 1775 and of the 
Scotch Highlanders at New Orleans, 1815. Ticonderoga 
Avas by far the greatest battle on American soil up to that 
time. The English disaster included the death of Lord 
Augustus Howe, a brilliant soldier. If Howe had not been 
killed at Ticonderoga, and Wolfe later at Quebec, the war 
for American independence would have seen far better 
commanders than William Howe, Burgoyne, Clinton, and 
Cornwallis on the English side. 



176 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 




WOLFE DEFEATED MONTCALM. 177 



§ 16. The English Gained Ticonderoga, Duquesne, and 
Louisburg. 

But the defeat of the English at Ticonderoga did not 
end the war. The next period saw not French but English 
victories. Lord Amherst was able to take Ticonderoga 
after Montcalm had gone into the northwest to pursue the 
French interests there. In 1758, General Forbes by mas- 
terly strategy, with the assistance of Washington's ever- 
increasing military skill, was able to compel the French to 
abandon Fort Duquesne, which he renamed Fort Pitt. 
General Wolfe laid siege to Louisburg, which, though 
almost perfectly built and well garrisoned, he took by 
assault, assisted by fire from English war-vessels. 

§ 17. Wolfe Met Montcalm at Quebec. 

In 1759 the crisis was reached. Montcalm held Quebec, 
and Wolfe laid siege to it without result. The town 
seemed impregnable to assault. Above the city rose the 
Heights of Abraham; within were the disciplined soldiers 
of France, under their brave and skilful commander. At 
last Wolfe heard of a path from the bank of the St. 
Lawrence River that led up to the Heights of Abraham. 
Was the path faithfully guarded by the French ? Could 
he transport a sufficient number of his troops up the river 
past the French sentries, and marshal them upon the Plains 
of Abraham before the dawn broke ? He resolved to try. 

The French watchword for the night was known to a 
Scotch soldier who spoke French perfectly. When chal- 
lenged as the boats passed the sentries, he answered with 
the watchword. The first men reached the path, and began 
to climb up the gorge where a faithful guard could have 



178 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



held back an army of ten thousand men. Of the hundred 
French soldiers assigned there, all were either away on leave 
of absence, or asleep, as was the unfortunate captain whose 
faithlessness cost his life. But the surprise of the sleep- 
ing sentries at midnight was not greater than that of all 
Quebec when, as the morning's fog lifted, they saw nearly 
four thousand English soldiers in battle line upon the Plains 
of Abraham. Without waiting for re-enforcements, and 
hoping to repeat the success at Ticonderoga, Montcalm 
formed his army in battle line and charged upon the Eng- 
lish. The impetuous charge was in vain against the solid 





Death of Generaf Wolfe. 



ranks of the English regulars. They were never defeated 
in the shock of open conflict. They charged in turn and 
drove the French and Canadians before them. Quebec was 
doomed, and with its fall there fell also French dominion 



FRANCE LOST NEW FRANCE. 179 



in the New World. In this great battle Wolfe, the splen- 
did English general, and Montcalm, the brilliant French 
leader, died in their early manhood. 

§ 18. By the Treaty of 1763 England Gained All the Lands 
of France and Spain East of the Mississippi, and Spain 
Took All the Lands West. 

The treaty of peace, 1763, dealt very radically with 
American territory. 'It placed England in possession of 
all Canada and of all the lands east of the Mississippi, in- 
cluding even Spanish Florida, and gave to Spain all the 
French territory west of the Mississippi. 

Conspiracy of Pontiac. 

§ 19. The Defeat of the French Led to a War of the 
English -with the Indians. 

The replacing of French by English garrisons through- 
out the region south of the Great Lakes was not without 
certain logical results, for the British were less successful 
in their relations with the Indians than were the French. 
One result was an Indian uprising. In 1763 Pontiac, chief 
of the Ojibways, formed an alliance with the Ottawas and 
Pottawottamies, in the country about the Great Lakes, and 
killed or dispersed by sudden attack the English garrisons 
in the eight forts of that region. He then laid siege to 
Detroit, getting supplies from the Canadians. 

§ 20. Pontiac was Slain by a Revengeful Illinois Indian. 

Though in the end unsuccessful, 1766, this conspiracy 
showed the colonials the great difficulties in store for them 
in trying to take possession of the splendid agricultural 



180 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



country beyond the Ohio. Pontiac, whose plans were those 
of a statesman, was himself murdered by an Illinois Indian 
in 1769. He saw that the French came as traders, but the 
English as settlers. The French made Indian life pleasant 

and comforta- 
ble ; the Eng- 
1 i s h made 
Indian life 
impossible, 
for they 
turned the 
wilderness 
into farms. 
What Pon- 
tiac could not 
see was the 
fact that the 

Indians were incapable of sufficient loyalty to the idea of 
living, working, and fighting together to make their com- 
bined resistance to the English advance successful. 




Pontiac Addressing an Indian Council of War. 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. In what region were the Spanish especially active in the period 
after 1565? 

2. What region of the present United States did the French wish 
to secure ? What means were they taking to secure it ? 

3. What great company undertook the colonization of Louisiana ? 
With what results ? 

4. Name and locate some of the important forts and settlements 
made by the French. 

5. What European monarchs were engaged in King William's War ? 
What were the ideas that caused their struggle against each other ? 

6. Give a brief account of the war. 



BEFORE AND AFTER THE WAR. 



181 




Before the French and Indian War. 




After the French and Indian War. 



182 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



7. Give a brief account of Queen Anne's War. 

8. What part did the Indians take in King William's War, and in 
Queen Anne's War ? 

9. What caused the Spanish and English War of 1739-42 ? 

10. Give an account of King George's War. 

11. What was the influence of this war upon the colonists as 
soldiers ? 

12. What was the effect of the terms of the treaty that closed this war ? 

13. What was the Seven Years' War in Europe, and how did it affect 
American history ? 

14. Compare the number of the French in America with the number 
of the English in 1754. 

15. How*were the French supported in America ? 

16. What was the purpose of the Ohio Company ? In what way did 
this purpose conflict with that of the French ? 

17. Upon what errand was George Washington sent in 1754 ? 

18. Give an account of Braddock's defeat. 

19. Where were the English successful in the earliest years of the 



war 



20. What success did the French have at Fort William Henry ? at 
Fort Oswego ? 

21. Describe briefly the battle at Ticonderoga. 

22. Divide the various incidents of the French and Indian War into 
four periods, setting in the third period the successes of Amherst, Forbes, 
and Wolfe. Give an account of this period to the siege of Quebec. 

23. Give a brief account of the victory at Quebec. 

24. In what battles were Augustus Howe, Montcalm, and Wolfe 
killed ? Is it likely that their deaths in any way affected later American 
history ? 

25. What was the result of the treaty of 1763 ? 

26. What was the immediate cause of the conspiracy of Pontiac ? 

27. Why did it fail ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries: Vol. II., Chap. XIX. (pp. 337-351) ; Chap. XX. 

(pp. 360-372) : Wars. 
Bancroft's History of the United States, Part III., Chaps. IX., X., XL, 

XIV. : The French ; (Vol. II., pp. 137-191, pp. 224-237) ; Chaps. XII. 

XVII. (pp. 192-211) : The Spanish War; Vol. II., pp. 360-366: The 



INTERCOLONIAL WARS. 183 



Ohio Company ; pp. 377-388, pp. 419-453, pp. 459-467, pp. 487-512 : 
French and Indian War. 

Thorpe's Historj/ of the American People, pp. 109-123 : The French 
Wars, p. 133 : Pontiac. 

Parkman's Frontenac : Wolfe and Montcalm : Pontiac. 

Hart's Formation of the Union, Chap. II. : The Wars. 

Brady's Colonial Fights and Fighters, Parts III. and IV. : The Battles. 

Sparks's Expansion of the American People, Chap. VI. : The French- 
English Struggle. 

Hosmer's History of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 51-58 : French : Indians. 

Brooks's Dames and Daughters of Colonial Days : Frances La Tour, a 
French heroine. 

Consult the standard encyclopedias : John Law and the Mississippi 
Company, Frontenac, Louis XIV of France, Frederick the Great, 
William Pitt. 

All the biographers of Washington deal with the early wars. See Irving, 
Wilson, Lodge. 

Consult standard English histories for William III, leader of Protestant- 
ism, and Louis XIV, leader of Catholicism. 

Note. — The subject of the five wars, 1689-1763, is so inextricably 
connected with European history that time fails the teacher. The impor- 
tant principle is this : The colonists in America were Europeans abroad. 
The center of history even here was European. . The causes of a war and 
its scenes are often geographically far apart. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION. 

1. The Story of Kaskaskia. 

2. John Law : Promoter, Speculator, Adventurer. 

3. Histories of : New Orleans, Detroit, Oswego. Niagara. Ticon- 
deroga, Quebec, Louisburg, Port Royal, Pittsburg. 

4. The Hanoverian Line : Anne, George I, George II, George III. 

5. William III of England : Louis XIV. 

6. William Pepperell : William Shirley. 

7. The Elder Pitt : Frederick the Great. 

8. The Ohio Company. 

9. George Washington, Frontiersman. 

10. The Feud between the Huron s and the Iroquois. 

11. Montcalm : Wolfe. 

12. Pontiac. 



184 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1682. Founding of Philadelphia. 
1682. Fort Kaskaskia is built. 
1689-97. King William's War. 
1699. Founding of Biloxi. 
1701. Founding of Detroit. 
1702-13. Queen Anne's War. 
.1718. Founding of New Orleans. 
1735. Founding of Vincennes. 
1739-42. Spanish-English War. 
1744-8. King George's War. 
1754-63. French and Indian War. 
1755. Braddock is defeated near Fort Duquesne. 
1758. Abercrombie is defeated at Fort Ticonderoga. 

1758. Forbes wins a victory at Fort Duquesne. 

1759. Amherst gains Fort Ticonderoga. 
1759. Fall of Quebec. 

1763-6. Conspiracy of Pontiac. 

SPECIAL EXERCISE. 

To this point the class has traversed seven quarter-centuries of colonial 
history. An interesting and profitable class-exercise may be carried out 
by placing upon the blackboard accounts of our history by quarter- 
centuries, somewhat as follows : viz., — 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



1st Quarter. 
1601-1625. 


2d Quarter. 
1626-1650. 


3d Quarter. 
1651-1675. 


4th Quarter. 
1676-1700. 


1607 Jamestown, 

1620 Plymouth, 

etc. 


1628 Salem, 
1636 Providence, 

etc. 


1663 North Caro- 

lina, 

1664 New York, 

etc. 


1682 Philadelphia, 

1692 Witchcraft 
delusion, 
etc. 



As many dates may be used and as full statements may be made as 
may seem desirable. 

All the benefit from such chronological schemes comes from making 
them. It is seldom profitable to try directly to memorize dates. We 
learn such facts best by using them. 



AMERICAN IDEAS. 185 

CHAPTER VI. 

DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN IDEAS. 

§ 1. The Colonists Did Not Believe in Freedom and Equality. 

To this day it has not been possible for historians to 
learn of the true and important facts regarding the wonder- 
ful backwoods life of America, beyond the ever-advancing 
frontiers of civilization. Nor has it been possible to learn 
much about the life of the underworld of the unfranchised 
poor, of the slaves and of the bondmen in the settled colo- 
nies. Until long after the War of Independence many 
human beings had not the modern rights of men. Nowhere 
did the colonials believe in the equality of all men and in 
the sacredness of the personal life. In 1738 the Negroes 
of South Carolina arose in insurrection, but were beaten 
down ; these Negroes were most of them from the vigorous 
tribes of Africa, and could not willingly endure the terrible 
labors and fevers of the rice swamps. Laws existed in all 
the colonies against slaves and bond-servants who fled to 
the freedom of the wilderness, but these laws were least 
severe in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. 

In New York City there suddenly developed in 1741, an 
insane fear of the Negroes that resulted in the execution 
of fifty-six Negroes and white bond-servants for an alleged 
plot against life and property. From this date slavery and 
servitude declined rapidly in the colony. The history of 
human progress in America records as its most important 
facts, the steps in the gradual deliverance of our people 
from the inequality, the ignorance, and the iniquity, that, 
in Europe, made the few the masters of the many. 



186 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



§ 2. The Opportunities of the New World Helped the Poor 
and the "Wretched, and Especially Their Children. 

All society in the different colonies was in a state of 
ferment and agitation. The children of the convicted 
murderers, who had been sold into the colonies by the 
home government instead of being hanged at home, and the 
children of Old World schoolmasters, so poor that they 
sold themselves into bondage for a term of years to pay 
their passage across the ocean, founded, families that came 
to rank with those of the best blood of England. Oppor- 
tunity met the colonials at every hand, but hardship and 
difficulty were the never remitted costs of success. 

§ 3. An Immense Increase of Population Followed the 
Victory at Quebec. 

To a people in this condition, the victory of England at 
Quebec, 1759, brought a new era, as the facts of popula- 
tion show. *The colonies grew in population from one 
million six hundred thousand in 1760, to two million six 
hundred thousand in 1775. This gain was partly from 
new immigration, but mainly from the natural increase of a 
prosperous population. The success of England in war had 
relieved the colonies from the pressure of France upon the 
North and West, and of Spain upon the South, and some- 
what from the pressure of the Indians at all points. Singu- 
lar as it may seem, it was colonial prosperity rather than 
adversity, that brought the American people, in 1775, into 
conflict with England. It usually happens that prosperity 
emboldens while adversity crushes the spirit. In this same 
period class distinctions were rapidly disappearing, for the 
poor were becoming well-to-do and free. 



THE LAND OF THE WESTERN WATERS. 187 



§ 4. Many People Moved "West. 

After the defeat of Pontiac, the westward movement of 
our population became more extensive. In early colonial 
times the settlers clung to the seacoast. Only the braver 
spirits dared to push great distances into the wilderness. 
The migration of Hooker with his congregation from Mas- 
sachusetts Bay to Connecticut, 1636, was an example fol- 
lowed by few others. But after 1766 the western-moving 
tide began to flow and is only now ceasing. 

§ 5. The Migration in the South was Large. 

Among the last colonies to be established were the Caro- 
linas and Georgia. Even in the years 1660-1734, people 
were beginning to move out of Virginia, where large planta- 
tions were formed by combination of smaller ones. North 
Carolina was constantly receiving new families from Virginia 
and South Carolina, the two aristocratic southern colonies. 
The political and social changes in Georgia made the people 
restless there. As soon as the Indians became compara- 
tively quiet, these restless families of the South began to 
move across the mountains into the valleys of the Ohio, 
Tennessee, and Cumberland. This region was called " the 
land of the western waters " because its rivers flowed west 
to the Mississippi, rather than east to the Atlantic. 

§ 6. Daniel Boone was a Leader in the Western Migration. 

It was after the battle of Alamance, 1771, in North Caro- 
lina, where the tyrannical governor, Tryon, defeated the 
rebels who believed in just laws, that the western move- 
ment became decided. Some people of Scotch-Irish and 
Huguenot blood preferred the dangerous liberty of the 



188 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



wilderness to the unjust peace of the settled country. By 
1775 Daniel Boone had established Boonesboro in Ken- 
tucky ; this was the very year of Lexington and Concord, 
when the gun of the Massachusetts minute-man " fired the 
shot heard round the world." During the years of the 
Revolution, the migration continued until Kentucky and 
Tennessee had many well-established towns and villages. 

§ 7. Kentucky and Tennessee were Settled Amid Perils. 

This settlement beyond the mountains cost many lives. 




Sometimes whole villages were destroyed by the Indians. 
Harvests were usually reaped by men with guns slung upon 
their backs. In perils and hardships the story of the set- 
tlement of the western country recounts deeds of heroism 
not less than those of the early days of Virginia and New 
England. In the great forests, miles away from neighbors, 
one, two, or three families made their clearings, built their 
cabins, planted their fields and gardens, and reared their 
children. Here began the true pioneering in the great wil- 
derness, out of which the peculiar American character has 



FREEDOM AND JUSTICE UNDER LAW. 



189 



grown, with ideas, affections, and ambitions not colored 
by European traditions. Here men learned independence 
and self-reliance in isolation from even the limited advan- 
tages of the At- 
lantic sea coast 
towns. Here grew 
the stock from 
which early in 
the nineteenth 
century Abraham 
Lincoln came. 

§ 8. American Ideas 
Develop. 

Along the sea- 
coast there was 
a similar though 
less rapid develop- 
ment of those pe- 
culiar ideas which 
constitute Ameri- 
canism, but which even yet are not perfectly realized. In 
the history of all peoples, the sea-going folk and the moun- 
taineers have been lovers of freedom and justice. They 
have stood for personal independence and equal opportunity 
for all. Storm and solitude at sea, close comradeship, sight 
of foreign lands and people, — these, like the silence of the 
forest and the wilderness friendships with but few com- 
panions, make men daring, patient, self-reliant, equal, and 
free. The Atlantic seacoast was the first, while the 
Appalachian hill-country was the second, scene upon which 
was developed slowly, but securely, our Americanism. 




A Log-Cabin in the Wilderness. 



190 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



§ 9. English America of 1775 Equaled Old England of 1588. 
In 1760 Virginia alone had 500,000 people, and Massa- 
chusetts 300,000. In New York City were 15,000 people. 
In 1775 there was in all the colonies, upon the seacoast and 
in the backwoods, a population nearly equal to that of Eng- 
land in the glorious days of Queen Elizabeth and William 
Shakespeare, and to that of New York City in 1900. So 
rapid a growth showed the industry of the people and their 
vigorous spirit in the freedom of American life. The lum- 
ber of the magnificent forests and the crops of the fertile 
lands were making them rich. But they knew almost 
nothing of the coal, iron, and petroleum underground. And 
their surprising progress was realized in the face of needless 
difficulties deliberately produced by the laws of the home- 
government that forbade manufactures and seriously lim- 
ited commerce upon the high seas. If the colonists had 
been perfectly free, as all well-disposed people who love 
their neighbors ought to be, the population and the wealth 
Avould have increased even faster. 

§ 10. The Colonies were Governed in One General Way. 

In 1775 there prevailed one general type of government 
in all the colonies. There was a governor at the head. 
There was a colonial legislature. There was a council of 
varied duties: advisory to the governor, judicial in relation 
to the courts, and legislative. There was the ballot, though 
the right to vote was not universal. It is commonly said 
that this general type took three or four modified forms. 
New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were royal colonies. 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland were proprietary 



THE GROWTH OF REPUBLICANISM. 191 



colonies. Connecticut and Rhode Island were charter colo- 
nies. Massachusetts was both a charter and a royal colony. 
In the royal colonies the governor was appointed by the 
king, and could veto colonial legislation if he cared to risk 
losing his salary for the year. In proprietary colonies the 
governor was appointed by the proprietors. The charter 
colonies could appoint their own governors, and their rights 
were guaranteed. Massachusetts had a royal governor, 
limited in his powers by a charter. In theory, there was the 
greatest freedom in charter colonies, and least in proprie- 
tary. In fact, they were generally quite as free in the 
proprietary as in the royal colonies, and all the colonies 
had far more freedom than was formally granted by their 
governments. From this grew their desire for independence. 

§ 11. In Local Affairs there were Differences in Government, 
North and South. 

In the various colonies the really important differences 
in government had to do not with the general but with the 
local affairs. In New England the town-meeting was all- 
powerful. Every town was a little republic. The town- 
meeting began at Plymouth in 1620, and continues in New 
England and elsewhere to this day. It is the school of 
American political liberty and equality. In the Southern 
Colonies local affairs were managed by officers for the coun- 
ties. These officers were appointed by the governors. The 
laws they enforced, however, were made by the legislatures, 
and the men themselves were generally the leading citi- 
zens of their counties. The town-meeting was not well 
adapted to the needs of the thinly settled colonies. In the 
Middle Colonies there prevailed forms of local government 



192 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



embracing features both of the town of New England and 
of the county of the South. This mixed type is to-day pre- 
dominant in all our States, for large populations cannot be 
governed well by either town-meetings or county boards. 
Getting all the people together in a vast convention is im- 
possible in a great city. Modern local government is ex- 
tremely complicated. It is an effort in the presence of the 
necessities of modern city life to combine the good features 
of the mass democracy of the town-meeting of New Eng- 
land, New York, and New Jersey, and of the select repub- 
licanism of the county of Virginia and the Carolinas. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Have we thorough means of learning about the lives of the fron- 
tier people of 1760 ? 

2. Were the Negroes willing victims of slavery ? 

3. Were the children of the immigrants more free and prosperous 
than they ? 

4. How did the victory at Quebec affect the colonies ? 

5. What led to the gradual disappearance of class distinctions ? 

6. Were the people generally willing to go into the wilderness before 
the defeat of Pontiac ? 

7. What changes in Virginia led to western migrations? 

8. What troubles in North Carolina contributed to these migra- 
tions? 

9. Who was the leader of the frontiersmen in Kentucky? 

10. Describe wilderness life. 

11. What qualities of character were developed in the backwoods? 

12. What qualities were developed in American sailors? 

13. Compare the population of the colonies in 1775 with that of Eng- 
land in 1588. 

14. Were the colonists free to earn their livings as they chose? 

15. Describe the general government of the English colonies. 

16. Explain the various forms of this government. 

17. Discuss the town-meeting and the county types of local govern- 
ment. 



AMERICAN IDEAS. 193 



SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries: Vol. II., pp. 55-6-1, pp. 74-89. pp. 99-1754, pp. 
116-126, pp. 111-311 : Manners of Colonial Society : Slavery and Ser- 
vitude : Government. 

Hart's Source Book, pp. 108-136 : Conditions of Colonial Life. 

Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies: Vol. II. 

Harper's Encyclopaedia of United States Histonj : New York : Slavery. 

Earle's Home Life in Colonial Bays. 

Consult standard encyclopaedias : Slavery, Tennessee, Kentucky, Boone. 

Roosevelt's Winning of the West: Vol. I. 

McLaughlin's American Nation, Chap. VII. : Social, industrial, and polit- 
ical conditions in 1760. 

Bancroft's History of the United States: Vol. II.. pp. 513-561. 

Channing's History of the United States, pp. 140-151 : Slavery : Educa- 
tion. 

Hosiner's History of the Mississijipi Valley. 

TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION. 

1. The Xegro Insurrection in South Carolina, 1738. 

2. The Negro "Plot"' in New York, 1741, and the Resultant Decline 
of Slavery in the North. 

3. The Western Migration and Frontier Life. 

4. Daniel Boone. 

5. The Scotch-Irish in the Appalachians. 

6. Colonial Life in : Boston ; New York ; Philadelphia ; Charleston ; 
between 1700 and 1775. 

7. The Colonial Sailors. 

8. The Prohibition of Manufacturing and the Result in Massachusetts 

9. The Town-meeting in the North a Century Ago : Nowadays. 
10. The County in the South. 

See Bibliography in Appendix. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1733. The last colony, Georgia, is established. 

1741. The negro " plot " in New York. 

1759. Quebec falls. 

1763-6. Conspiracy of Pontiac. 

1771. The rebel colonists are defeated in North Carolina. 

1775. Daniel Boone establishes Eoonesboro in Kentucky. 

1775. The battle of Lexington begins the Revolutionary War. 



194 PBOGKESS OF THE COLONIES. 

CHAPTER VII. 

COLONIAL UNI OX. 

§ 1. The New England Confederacy Lasted Forty Years. 

The first step toward colonial union was taken in 1643, 
when the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Con- 
necticut, and New Haven entered into a confederation " for 
mutual help and strength in all our future concernments,' 1 
as they said in the quaint phrasing of their times. This 
confederacy proved very helpful against the Dutch and the 
Indians, though it w^as confined entirely to New England 
and lasted but forty years. There were, indeed, too many 
forces that tended toward colonial disunion, to permit of 
general and successful federation for a century to come. 

§ 2. By Delaying Union Our Country Became a Federal State. 
This great difference in custom and sentiment between 
the colonies was very fortunate for our own best national 
development, for if, in those days of but few settlers, a 
single government had been established, the War for Inde- 
pendence would have found no colonies to make into a 
nation of united States, harmonious in spirit, but various in 
character and ambition. Instead, we might have become a 
solid nation with one central government controlling us from 
the Capital city, even in our local affairs, as Paris to-day con- 
trols France. This would have been a great misfortune, for 
so vast a country as ours needs not only a national govern- 
ment but separate State governments as well. As it is, we 
have a federal government, — that is, a nation made by the 
union of more or less subordinate States, each of which 
in most respects has entire control of its local affairs. 






THE SEPARATION OF THE COLONIES. 195 



§ 3. Many Forces Tended to Keep the Colonies Separate. 

The forces that made for colonial disunion included the 
governments of the various different colonies with their 
different charters, proprietors, and governors. Political 
ambitions kept the great men from desiring union. Trans- 
portation was so difficult by land, especially in winter and 
spring, that no government, unless as in Europe it was the 
outcome of centuries of habitual and usually despotic rule, 
and that based on force of arms, could govern its citizens at 
any great distance from the center. All the large towns 
were near the ocean, or upon waterways leading to the 
ocean, until long after independence had been secured. 

There was little trade between the seaports, for all of them 
had much the same commodities to sell, and the merchants 
sent their cargoes to other lands. The people of the various 
colonies saw very little of each other. George Washington 
was almost the first American who was known personally 
by the people of half-a-dozen different colonies. The Eng- 
lish government encouraged colonial isolation by prohibiting 
intercolonial trade in various articles. Nature, too, con- 
spired to further the differences between the colonies, for the 
climate of New Hampshire was as unlike that of the 
Carolinas as the climate of Sweden is unlike that of Italy. 
The people had to fit themselves in dress and occupation 
for very different modes of life. Again, the colonists were 
of many different nations and languages, and in the days 
of long ago all foreigners were mutual enemies. This was 
especially true of the poor and the ignorant, whose monarchs 
thought hatred made good soldiers. And, too, the colonists 
were all very busy with their immediate personal affairs, 
and had little time for intercolonial travel. 



196 PROGRESS OF THE COLOK1ES. 



§ 4. Northern, Middle, and Southern Colonies were Divided 
Regarding the Wisdom and Righteousness of Negro Slavery. 

It was not profitable to keep Negro slaves in Massachu- 
setts, where the winters are long and the summers short, for 
slave labor is of little use in any indoor industry or in sea- 
faring enterprises. But the profit upon slave labor in 
the Virginia tobacco-fields and in the Carolina rice-swamps 
was very great. Still another force tended to keep the col- 
onies apart. In New York and Pennsylvania were many 
Dutch and German people who for a long time determined 
the language spoken in large districts. Very few of these 
ever kept slaves. The English and Germans in Pennsyl- 
vania did not believe in Negro slavery, and thus formed a 
great region between the northern colonies in which house- 
hold slavery, already on the decline, was the only form 
of slavery that ever existed to any extent, and the southern 
colonies, in which agricultural slavery was steadily on the 
increase. Nearly one-third of all the population in America 
were slaves or bond servants; and it was unsafe for the 
masters to sojourn long from home. This discouraged travel, 
which builds sectional sympathies upon friendships. 

§ 5. Several Forces Tended to Colonial Union. 
Of the three great forces for colonial union, the first was 
the presence everywhere of the Indians. Military necessity 
tended to unite the colonies. The second force was far 
greater, and though it never quite overcame the desire for 
colonial separateness, it was strong enough to produce, in 
1774, a true union for the purpose of a general government. 
This great force, exhibiting itself even in New York after 
1664, was the English political spirit, present and active in 



THE ALBANY CONVENTION. 197 



all the colonists of that race. The English, whether in Eng- 
land or in America, believed in self-government, in the rights 
of the people to make their own laws, to levy their own 
taxes, to choose their own rulers, to decide upon war and 
peace, to worship God without interference by government, 
to speak and to print freely what they pleased, to trade 
wherever they chose, to sue and to be sued in impartial 
courts of justice and in accordance with uniform, certain, 
and universal laws, and to be tried by their equals when 
accused of wrong-doing. No other people of the world then 
believed in these rights. This spirit dwelt in all English 
breasts, and made all Englishmen friends because they 
understood each other. A third force tended to draw all 
the colonies together: one home government, all of whose 
officers spoke the predominant colonial language. The 
necessities of war, the political ideas, and the common 
language, prevailed sufficiently by 1754, the year before 
Braddock's defeat, to produce the acceptance on the part 
of eight colonies of the plan of a Convention at Albany on 
the Hudson River. 

§ 6. In 1754 Benjamin Franklin Organized the Albany- 
Convention. 

The organizer of this famous Convention was Benjamin 
Franklin of Philadelphia. The purpose of the Convention 
was to prevent France from seizing the lands below the 
Ohio, which Virginia desired. New Hampshire, Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, 
and Maryland sent delegates to confer with delegates from 
the Indians of the Six Nations. Franklin submitted a plan 
for colonial union, which was adopted and then reported to 



198 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



the English government and to the colonies. England re- 
jected the plan because it gave too much power to the colo- 
nies, and the colonies rejected it because it gave them too 
little. But the Albany Convention was a success, for it 
had afforded an opportunity for representatives of various 
colonies to become acquainted with each other by confer- 
ences, in which they considered many matters of general 
interest. It was the logical foundation for the later Con- 
federation that, by its Continental Congress of Colonies, 
organized and carried out the War of Independence. 

§ 7. England Pursued the Colonial Policy of All Nations of 
the Times. 

In 1651 the English Parliament, following the historic 
policy of all European nations that had colonies, passed 
the first Act of a series later known as Navigation Acts. 
In 1660, upon the downfall of the Puritan Republic and 
the restoration of the Stuart Monarchy in England, a 
stricter Act was passed, which provided that only English 
or English colonial ships should carry goods to and from 
the colonies, and that certain articles of merchandise, of 
which tobacco was the most important, should be taken 
from the colonies only to England and English dependen- 
cies. A few years later another Act provided that the 
colonial merchants should buy manufactured goods in 
England only. It was never possible entirely to enforce 
these laws. Smuggling was not only common; it was 
openly admitted as a business practice. In an age when 
even piracy was considered legitimate, and, when successful, 
honorable, neither merchants nor officers at ports of entry 
hesitated at bribery and collusion to evade the laws. 



BUYING LAWS. 199 



§ 8. Faithful English Governors were Unpopular. 
But in 1761 Parliament decided to try to enforce these 
neglected Acts, which had been used by the lower officers 
as much to blackmail merchants as to collect revenues in 
the colonies for England. Since 1681, when the non- 
enforcement of the Acts was made a pretext for revoking 
the Massachusetts Charter, their existence had almost been 
forgotten in New England. In that year Andros had been 
appointed governor of Massachusetts, and later, 1688, of 
all New England, New York, and New Jersey. His prov- 
ince was Called New England, and throughout it he meant 
to put an end to all violations of the laws. For trying to 
do so he was himself arrested and thrown into prison, to 
be deported to England at the time of the English Revolu- 
tion. However, he came back as governor of Virginia, 
and again as governor of New Jersey, for brief periods. 
He was one of those faithful servants of the English Crown 
who were particularly disliked by the American colonists 
for that very reason. 

§ 9. The Colonies Exchanged Assurances of Salaries to Gov- 
ernors for Favorable Legislation. 

As a class, the governors were able, just, and honest, 
far more just and honest than the governors sent by 
other countries to rule their colonies. The English laws 
were generally as favorable to the colonies as were the 
laws of other countries. In the enforcement of these laws 
the governors and the other royal officers of high position 
were much more lenient than their oaths of office or com- 
mon custom in the colonies of the time required them to 
be. They were not extortioners, exacting greater fees and 



200 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



taxes than the laws allowed, and taking the illegal profits 
to themselves. Very few of them were inclined to turn the 
authority of their offices to the advantage of their friends 
and to the injury of their enemies. They were generally 
men of easy-going dispositions, inclined to make their stay 
in the New World as pleasant as possible for themselves 
and their families. Unfortunately for England, they fell 
into the custom of agreeing to certain bills in the various 
colonial legislatures before the legislatures appropriated the 
money for their salaries. If the governor refused to agree 
to laws proposed, the legislatures made it a practice to with- 
hold the governor's salary until his consent was given. In 
consequence, the local laws of the colonies were very favor- 
able to themselves, and the colonies came to be very nearly 
independent and almost entirely self-governing. 

§ 10. Loyalty to England Declined. 

On England's side the laws of the home government 
were not enforced in the colonies, and her governors ex- 
changed the assurance of getting their salaries for signature 
to laws that ignored the home-government in London ; on 
the side of the colonies, the people in each successive gen- 
eration became more and more separated from the traditions 
and customs of the home-country, and more and more 
independent in thought and aspiration. They were, in fact, 
neither loyal to England nor disloyal, but indifferent, de- 
spite their many professions of loyalty, according to the 
fashion of the speech and writing of the times. Nor were 
all the colonists English, or of English descent. In the 
crisis to come, the Scotch-Irish were destined to be more 
loyal than the English themselves. But there were people 



THE LOYALISTS. 201 



of other blood also in the colonies : Huguenots from 
France, Germans from the Rhine, and Dutch from Holland. 
To many of these people England meant only the country 
which had opened up this region of the New World as a 
refuge from oppression. Any English laws that looked 
oppressive easily caused the ancient gratitude to die in the 
souls of those persons who were not English by blood. 

§ 11. The English Party was Composed of Merchants and Other 
"Well-to-do People. 

The struggle that lay ahead was destined to be no gen- 
eral uprising of a single, harmonious people to overthrow a 
distant tyrant. It was to be, rather, a civil war ; for many 
of the colonists were staunch supporters of the Crown. 
On the one side, that of the mother-country, were three 
classes. The first of these were the English people who 
had recently immigrated. They remembered their homes, 
the English idea of reverence for the king and respect for 
the ruling classes in Church and State, and the law and 
order of their former lives. The second class were the 
merchants and their employes and allies in trade, who were 
generally well-to-do, and as comfortable in mind as they 
were in estate. They saw no good reason for a change to 
other conditions that would probably be worse. The third 
class was composed of farmers, mechanics, and other indus- 
trious workers, who were too busy to think of politics and 
statesmanship, and were very much disposed to let well 
enough alone. Of all these Loyalists there were many hun- 
dreds of thousands from Boston to Savannah. They knew 
how very slightly they were affected by English laws, and 
could see in change nothing but possibilities of evil. 



202 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



and Democrats. 

On the other side, the side of those who desired either 
the complete independence of each colony from England, 
or the national independence of a union of colonies, or, at 
least, colonial freedom from all interference in local or in- 
ter-colonial or foreign affairs of government and business, 
there were many different groups and classes of people. 

Many of the leaders came from aristocratic Virginia and 
democratic Massachusetts. The first men of Virginia had 
too long been masters on their own plantations to be will- 
ing to endure other masters across the sea. The first men 
of Massachusetts had too long controlled in the democracy 
of town-meeting and parish-meeting (which were often the 
same) to care to maintain longer the appearance of being 
ruled by others. The idea of independence had long been 
growing in the minds of these leaders. Another class, rep- 
resented in nearly all the colonies, consisted of those whose 
families had risen in the New World, and who saw in the 
extension of liberty immense possibilities for themselves 
and their children. These were the thinkers of the Revo- 
lution. Their thought was radical. They meant to see 
bondage of all kinds cease and human equality established. 

Then there were the discontented people who had not 
been successful, and who saw in revolutionary changes pos- 
sibilities of advancement for themselves. There were dis- 
orderly people who desired no government at all. There 
were finally, the adventurers, the enemies of England, the 
professional soldiers, and various others, all of whom helped 
to swell the gieat number who were destined to oppose the 
continuance of English rule in this land. 



THE LEADERS OF THE PATRIOTS. 



203 



§ 13. Effective Leadership Directed the Patriot Cause. 
When England undertook to enforce the Stamp Act in 
1765, and later the Tea and other Acts, the Loyalists found 
no leaders and maintained no organization. The revolu- 
tionary party, however, at once found leaders, and began 
to form and to develop a very strong organization. Among 
these leaders were 
the great orators, 
Patrick Henry of 
Y i r g i n ia and 
James Otis of 
Massachusetts: 
the great business 
man, Benjamin 
Franklin, and the 
popular advocate, 
John Dickinson, 
author of the 
famous "Farm- 
er's Letters," both of Pennsylvania; and the great demo- 
cratic politician, Samuel Adams of Massachusetts. To this 
one fact, more than to any other, is due the final success of 
the patriot cause. The leaders were by no means agreed as 
to the aim of the movement in which they combined ; but 
they did combine. Otherwise the revolutionary party, com- 
posed of so many discordant elements, could never have 
been successful against the English arms. Some were for 
mere protest, others were for colonial independence under 
the protection of England ; few at first were ready to fight 
for complete national freedom. Scarcely one foresaw a 
republic of self-governed citizens as the result of war. 




Faneuil Hall, Boston. 



204 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



§ 14. A Cry was Raised, " No Taxation "Without 
Representation." 

The actual legislation of England with reference to the 

colonies was meant to secure two objects. The first was 

recognition by the colonists of the right of the home 

government to levy and collect any and all kinds of taxes. 




Patrick Henry Addressing the House of Burgesses. 

The second was to get enough taxes to pay at least a part 
of the immense sum expended in defense of the colonies 
against the French advance from Canada. To the first of 
these objects, the colonists replied, " No taxation without 
representation." Their reply to the second Avas a series of 
acts of resistance, of which one of the most picturesque 
was the Boston Tea Party. In the eighty years since the 
English Revolution, 1688-9, Parliament had grown all- 
powerful, and regarded both the speech and the action as 
little short of treason. 



THE COLONIES HAD OUTGROWN THE MOTHER COUNTRY. 205 



§ 15. The Revolutionary Party Generally Desired Protection 
from Foreign Enemies, but Local Independence. 

" No taxation without representation" meant that since 
all the people in England were entitled to representation in 
Parliament, and since the colonists had no representation, 
no taxation at all could be levied in America by the Eng- 
lish Parliament. When England replied, suggesting that 
the colonies send representatives, when even Benjamin 
Franklin proposed a scheme of representation, the revolu- 
tionary colonists declined to consider the suggestion, 
alleging that the distance from Boston, New York, Phila- 
delphia, and Charleston was far too great to permit of effi- 
cient and just government. In view of the fact that three 
months were commonly required for a letter to go to Eng- 
land and a reply to be received, it is evident that a repre- 
sentative in Parliament would be very remote from his 
American constituency. Perhaps in that day the most 
popular plan was to form a union of the American colonies, 
with a separate Parliament, and subject to England only in 
matters of war. This plan found few friends in England. 

"No taxation" meant, in fact, a denial of the colonial rela- 
tion to England, but was proclaimed by many who meant 
to demand England's protection hi time of war. To such 
a condition had the free air of this New World brought 
the minds of many, probably of most, of the colonials 
in 1760. In the affairs of men there is legal provision 
by government for recognition of the youth who has grown 
to be a man and has the right to be independent of his 
father; but in the affairs of nations there is no higher inter- 
national authority to compel a nation to recognize that a 
colony has " come of age " and deserves independence. 



206 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



§ 16. The Stamp Act was Passed and Repealed. 

The various acts of English oppression, to use the phrase 
of the radicals of that day, were these. In 1761 England 
began to enforce the existing laws. This led to violence in 
Massachusetts. In 1764 the House of Commons passed a 
resolution that taxation in the colonies without their repre- 



i 



The TIMES are 

£>reabful. 

Sifmal 

Doleful 

Dolorous, and 

Dollar-less. 



Thurfday, OQebcry, 1765 




NUMB. 1195. Z 



PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL; 





WEEKLY 


ADVERTISER. 


# 


EXPIRING. In 


Hopes of a Refurrection to Life again. 




row) thePubl 



AM ferry to be obliged] 
to acquaint my Read- 
ers, thai as TheSTAMP- 
Act. isfearttto be ob- 
ligatory upon > 

filing, (ihc fata/To mo 
(her of this Paper unable to 



after 



I bear the Burthen, has thought it expedient 

1 STOP awhile, inorder todeliberate, wh 
I ther any Methods can be found to elude the 
I Chains forged for us. and efcape the infup- 
I portable Slavery ; which it is hoped, from 
thelaft fleprefentalions now made againfl 
|lhalA&. may be effefled Meanwhile, 
nuft earneflly Requeft e»ery Individual 



\y Subfcnbers many of whom have 
been long behind Hand, that they would 
immediately Difcharge their refpective Ar 
rers that 1 may be able, not only lo 
fupport myfelf during the Interval, but 
be belter prepared to proceed again with 
this Paper, whenever an opening for that 
Purpbfe appears, which 1 hope will be 
WILLIAM BRADFORD. 



At the Time of the Stamp Act. 



sentation was just, and Parliament passed an Act levying 
certain imposts to try the question in the colonies practi- 
cally. In 1765 the Stamp Act was passed, imposing a tax 
upon newspapers, and various commercial documents, such 
as deeds and mortgages. It struck at the two strongest 
classes in any nation, — the professional men, both jour- 
nalists and lawyers, and the business men. Virginia 
and Massachusetts passed resolutions of protest, and a 



THE " SONS OF LIBERTY, 



207 



convention of delegates from the colonies met at New York 
to discuss the matter. This Stamp Act Convention brought 
into prominence the Sons of Liberty, especially in New 
York. These " Sons " played a very important part in 
public and private affairs for the next ten years, organizing 
mobs that attacked the Loyalists, and keeping alive the 
democratic agitation for equal personal rights and for 
national independence. In the following year, 1766, the 
Stamp Act was repealed; but in 1767 an Act was passed 
imposing duties upon glass, paper, painters' colors, and 
teas. This Act called forth both intense and general 
opposition. Many merchants in the North agreed to stop 
buying English 
goods, except a 
few " enumerated 
articles," as they 
were styled. 




Reading the Stamp Act in Boston. 



§ 17. Blood was 
Shed in Massa- 
chusetts and 
North Carolina. 

In 1768 England 
sent over soldiers 
to assist the cus- 
toms officers in 

enforcing the Act at the port of Boston. The Act itself, 
however, was repealed in 1770, in a very conciliatory 
manner, but the troops were not withdrawn. In 1770, 
occurred the Boston Massacre, when the English soldiers 
killed three citizens and wounded five others. In this 
same year, 1770, occurred, in New York City, the " battle 



208 



PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



of Golden Hill," which was a series of conflicts between 
the British soldiers and the Sons of Liberty over the right 
of the people to maintain a liberty pole. One citizen was 
killed. The soldiers were finally defeated. In the follow- 
ing year, 1771, came the insurrection in North Carolina 
against the tyranny of the royal governor, Tryon, where 
a battle was fought with fifteen hundred rebels against a 
thousand colonial militia. This was civil war. 




The Boston Massacre. (After the famous picture by the patriot, Paul Revere.) 



§ 18. Tea Caused Much Trouble and also Some Amusement. 

It was in 1772 that the G-asjjee, an armed English 
schooner, pursuing a packet-boat on its way to Providence, 
ran aground, and was burned that night by the colonists. 



BOSTON" PATRIOTISM. 



209 



In 1773, partly to help the East India Company, whose 
warehouses were overloaded with seventeen million pounds 
of tea, and partly to conciliate the colonists, the English gov- 
ernment arranged for the sale of tea in America at a price 
that, even with duty added, was lower than ever before. 
Thereupon the Company sent large cargoes to Boston, Xew 




The Boston Tea Party Delighted the Patriots Everywhere. 

York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. Xew York and Phila- 
delphia sent the tea back; Charleston stored it in damp cellars 
where it was spoiled; and Boston one evening overturned 
the tea into the harbor at the celebrated Tea Party, when 
some sixty of the best citizens disguised themselves as In- 
dians, and carried out to the letter the unexpressed desire 
of a great Boston public meeting held that very clay, 1773. 
In these years only Loyalists drank tea and used English 
goods, often at the cost of a suit of tar and feathers at the 
hands of the rough and lawless men in the party of liberty. 



210 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



§ 19. The Boston Port Bill Closed the Harbor. 

Then in 1774 came the Boston Port Bill, shutting out 
its commerce at the dictation of King George III, a sincere 
man, much influenced by an equally sincere man, his prime 
minister, Lord North. These men believed in the rule of 
colonies by the home government, as do all kings and most 
prime ministers to this day. General Gage was sent with 
more soldiers to hold the rebellious city in subjection. In 
1775 an Act was passed forbidding the New England people 
from fishing off the Banks of Newfoundland. England 
meant either to rule or to ruin New England. 

§ 20. The General Congress Began its Sessions. 

Meantime, in 1774, a General Continental Congress had 
been organized as a result of the activity of the Committees 
of Correspondence. This Congress had no legal rights 
whatever, for its authority was distinctly contrary to that of 
the King's government. Nor did it govern by general con- 
sent. Rather, it governed by right of democracy, which 
gives the control of peoples to the stronger party, the ma- 
jority rightfully. In the war then coming on, this General 
Congress by its final success proved its right to exist. 

§ 21. The Issue between America and England was the 
Supremacy of Parliament Abroad as at Home. 

The England and the English government, to which this 
bold opposition had now arisen in America, were by no 
means the England and the English government that had 
established Jamestown in Virginia, 1607, and Plymouth 
in Massachusetts, 1620, but a century and a half before. 
Then England was engaged in great religious and political 



THE SUPREMACY OF PARLIAMENT. 211 



struggles ; she was scarcely as great a power in Europe as 
France ; her population may have been four millions of 
people. Then her rulers were the Stuarts, strong believers 
in the " divine right of Kings," bitter opponents of the claims 
of Parliament and of the people to a share in government, 
and champions of the State Church. But in 1775, England 
was comparatively peaceful ; she had just won a series of 
great wars with France ; she was unquestionably the first 
power in Europe ; her population was twice as great and 
many times as rich as in 1620. Her rulers were the foreign 
Hanoverians from Germany, who governed by the new 
device of the Cabinet, and who were ready to admit freely 
the absolute supremacy of Parliament. Religious discus- 
sions were over, for all Christian denominations were tol- 
erated. The struggle came upon a point of which the 
seventeenth century colonists could have known nothing. 
They regarded the King as supreme. Parliament in 1775 
was demanding that its supremacy be admitted in the colo- 
nies as it was at home. Lord North, the prime minister, 
represented not so much King George III, as Parliament, 
whose majority was Tory. His Cabinet and Parliament 
cared something for their point that the colonies should help 
pay for the great wars that had redeemed America from 
France, but they cared far more for the principle of the 
supremacy of Parliament throughout the British Empire. 
This Tory party saw only the destruction of society, in the 
arguments of Patrick Henry in the famous Parsons' Cause, 
1761, against a Church supported by taxes, and of James 
Otis, 1761, against a State that could invade any man's 
house to look for smuggled goods, as proposed but not 
accomplished by the " Writs of Assistance." 



212 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



§ 22. Liberty is Founded upon Self-government. 

The British Parliament meant to show its absolute 
power; that is, the supremacy of the Lords and Commons 
of England. The Lords, who formed the higher house in 
that greatest legislature of the world, held their power by 
inheritance. The members of the lower house, the Com- 
mons of England, held their positions by election of the 
voters, or by nomination of certain Lords. For this Parlia- 
ment of the peers and the free men great wars had been 
fought through long centuries. It gave England a better 
government than any other nation had. Nevertheless, the col- 
onists were against Parliament. Among them a few looked 
deep into the rights of men. This minority was opposed to 
lords and to kings, and was in favor of the equality of all. 

These thinkers had studied the wisdom of the world's 
great philosophers, among the Jews, the Greeks, the Ro- 
mans, the Swiss, the Italians, the Germans, the Dutch, the 
French, and the English. Their foundation doctrine was ex- 
pressed by the Italian Beccaria, " Every act of authority of 
one man over another for which there is not absolute neces- 
sity, is tyrannical." From these scholars came the great doc- 
trine that a just government can exist only by the consent of 
the governed. This doctrine of the rights of men to liberty 
and equality was the moving cause of the Revolution. Ben- 
jamin Franklin argued it before Parliament, Council, and 
King. Samuel Adams proclaimed it in Massachusetts towns 
and villages, and Patrick Henry expounded it in the courts 
of Yirginia. Livingston, John Adams, Jefferson, set it 
before the world for all time in the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence, 1776. War had come because America would no 
longer consent to government by Parliament over the sea. 



COLONIAL UNION. 213 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What was the New England Confederacy ? How long did it last ? 

2. If the union of the colonies had come earlier than 1775, why might 
onr nation have been not federal, but central ? 

3. What were some of the facts and forces that tended to keep the 
colonies separate ? 

4. Explain the relation of slavery to the disuniteclness of the colonies. 

5. What were the forces that made for colonial union ? 

6. Explain the "rights of Englishmen." 

7. Give an account of the Albany Convention of 1754 and of its 
results. 

8. Describe the conditions of colonial trade. 

9. Why was the Massachusetts charter revoked in 1684 ? 

10. Why were faithful English governors unpopular in America ? 

11. What may be said of the character of most of the royal governors ? 

12. How did the colonial legislatures bribe the governors ? 

13. Were the colonists generally loyal to England ? 

14. What classes of people were disposed to support the authority of 
King and Parliament ? 

15. What classes were disposed to support the cause of American 
independence ? 

16. Did the patriots or the united empire loyalists secure the best 
leaders and the strongest organization '? 

17. What objects was England's legislation meant to secure ? 

18. What was the meaning of the cry, " No taxation without represen- 
tation ■ ' ? 

19. What plans were suggested to meet this popular opposition to 
Parliamentary control ? 

20. What was the Stamp Act ? 

21. Why did it arouse violent resistance ? 

22. Discuss the deeds and ideas of the " Sons of Liberty." 

23. What was the fate of the Act taxing glass, paper, and tea ? 

24. What was the battle of Golden Hill ? 

25. What was the Boston Massacre ? 

26. What was the result of the insurrection of 1771 in South Caro- 
lina? 

27. What was the Tea Act of 1773 ? 

28. What disasters befell cargoes of tea to America ? 

29. What was the Boston Port Bill, and what was its purpose ? 

30. Discuss the Continental Congress. 



214 PROGRESS OF THE COLONIES. 



31. Compare the England of the early Stuarts to the England of the 
Hanoverians. 

32. What was the main purpose of Parliament in taxing America ? 

33. What was the influence of the doctrine of the "rights of man'* ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. II. : Causes and conditions of the Revolution, 

pp. 373-477. 
Hart's Source Readers, Vol. II., Part VI. : Causes of the Revolution*, pp. 

153-182. 
Fisher's True History of the Revolution, pp. 1-182. 
Fiske's War of Independence, Vol. I. 
Van Tyne's Loyalists in the Revolution. Chapters I. -IV. 
Larned's History for Ready Reference, Vol. V. : United States, 1760-1775. 
Hart's Formation of the Union, Chap. III. 
MacDonald's Select Charters, Vol. I.: Albany Plan of Union. Also: 

Stamp AGt, Revenue Act, Tea Act, Port Bill, etc. 
MacLaughlin's History of the American Nation, Chapter VIII. : Causes 

of the Revolution. 
Consult biographies of James Otis, Patrick Henry, Benjamin Franklin. 

Samuel Adams. 
Bancroft's History of the United States. In the last (six volume) edition, 

an entire volume is devoted to the subject of this chapter. 
Thompson's Hand of God in American History, Chapter V. 
Wendell's Literary History of America, pp. 92-118. 

TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION. 

1. The Decline of Slavery. 

2. The Various Nationalities in America in 1775. 

3. The Albany Convention. 

4. The Navigation Acts. 

5. Bribery of Governors ; that is, Buying the Laws. 

6. James Otis, and the Writs of Assistance, 1770, — Massachusetts. 

7. Patrick Henry, and the Parsons' Cause, 1763, — Virginia. 

8. John Dickinson's " Farmer's Letters." 

9. Benjamin Franklin's Examination before Parliament, 1766. 

10. The House of Hanover : George III. 

11. The Boston Tea Party. 

12. The United Empire Loyalists. 



COLONIAL UNION. 215 



13. Samuel Adams, Forerunner of Democracy in America. 

14. General Gage in Boston. — The Effects of the Boston Port Bill. 

15. The Growth of the English Cabinet, — from "the Cabal " of 
Charles II to Lord North, Prime Minister. 

16. The Whigs and the Tories in England in 1770. 

17. The Misfortunes of Hutchinson, Loyalist, in Massachusetts. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1754. Albany Convention. 

1763. End of French and Indian War. 

1765. Stamp Act. 

1765. Stamp Act Congress. 

1766. Repeal of Stamp Act. 

1767. Kevenue Act (Townshend Act). 
1770. Repeal of Revenue Act. 

1770. Boston Massacre. 

1771. North Carolina insurrection. 

1773. Tea Act. 

1774. Boston Port Bill. 

1774. General Congress. 

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE. 

Represent graphically upon the blackboard the varied lengths of these 
intervals, to show the ever faster rates of the movement of history. 
1492. Columbus. 

A ' ' New World ' ' is found. 
115 years. 
1607. Jamestown. 

The English establish a successful colony. 

57 years. 
1664. New York. 

All the colonies possess the "rights of Englishmen." 

6.9 years. 
1733. Georgia. 

English colonization ends in a great philanthropy. 

32 years. 
1765. Stamp Act. 

The colonists object to Old World taxes. 

10 years. 

1775. War. 



216 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



tys 






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^~^-^ *y'r"m?%^ C r .- ^Utrt^ asr^ st^-us rr^tf &7U^~ 



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This famous letter was written but never sent to William Strahan, a personal friend of 
Franklin, who had risen from being common printer, to be " Printer to the King." 



PART THREE. 

BUILDING THE NATION. 



CHAPTER I. 

DEVELOPING THE IDEA OF A NATION. 

§ 1. The Continental Congress was Undecided as to its Policy, 
but Selected G-eorge Washington as Commander-in-Chief 
of its Armies. 

When the Continental Congress, organized by the Com- 
mittees of Correspondence, met at Philadelphia for its second 
session, the delegates were by no means unanimous as to the 
object that they should seek to secure by protest against 
the policy of England in reference to taxation. However, 
more of them than in the first session were anxious to 
gain complete independence, and less of them were hope- 
ful that England would give up the idea of asserting her 
sovereign right to tax the colonies. The most important 
act of the Congress was to select a commander-in-chief for 
the armies raised in the various colonial States and gathered 
about Boston. Selected though these delegates often were 
by mere factions, and not by the majorities of their dis- 
tricts, they were almost unanimous in choosing the Vir- 
ginian hero of the campaigns of Braddock and Forbes. The 
Massachusetts delegates, particularly, urged the appointment 
of Washington, because he came from Virginia. His elec- 
tion would insure the support of the South in the great 
struggle just beginning. At this time George Washington 
was in his vigorous manhood, forty-three years of age, and 

217 



18 



BUILDING THE NATION. 




the best known man in the colonies. It was tins decision 
of the Continental Congress that more than any other 

single act led to their agreement 
next year to declare for national 
independence. Washington was 
the central influence of the Revo- 
lution. To have one general com- 
mander-in-chief for all the colonies 
was to bring before all the people 
the new idea of a single nation. 
This great man was always an 
American first and 
a Virginian second. 

£ 2. The Division of 
the People in the 
Colonies Extended 
Through All Classes. 

The people best 
pleased by this selec- 
tion Of GeOrge Wasll- 
lndependence Hall, where the Continental Congress Met, lllgtOn Were thoSC 

who in well-to-do or 
fair circumstances saw in his leadership the security of prop- 
erty and persistence in their purpose, which was to win the 
right of self-government. For George Washington was not 
only the brilliant surveyor of lands, the hardy frontiersman, 
the excellent soldier, rich by his own efforts, he was also a 
great land-owner by inheritance, and he had married Mrs. 
Martha Custis, a widow who brought him not only lands, 
which in those times were worth little to buy and sell, but 
also fifty thousand pounds in gold, a quarter of a million 




THE WEALTHY PATRIOTS. 219 

dollars, a magnificent sum of money in those days. The 
Washingtons were among the wealthiest families enlisted on 
the patriot side. Only Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Mary- 
land, was richer. Only John 
Hancock, Benjamin Franklin, and 
Robert Morris as business men 
were equally well known. The 
Mount Vernon brand of flour, 
made by Washington, was sold 
in large quantities in London, 
even during the Revolution. 
The Mount Vernon cloth, too, 
was famous. There were many 
wealthy families among the 
Loyalists, or Tories, but there 

Were QUite aS many SUCh families Charles Carroll, of Carrolton, Maryland. 

x . . Born, 1737; died, 1832. Lived to 

among the patriots, Or VV hlgS, be present at the beginning of the 

or » rebels." Fortunately for the Baltimore and 0hi0 Railroad ' l828 * 
patriot cause, these wealthy families were willing to spend 
their wealth as freely as their blood. The colonial population 
was divided in every class, among the rich as well as among 
the poor, between Loyalists and Revolutionists, with this im- 
portant difference, that the former had no leader, while the 
latter had the greatest leader of men in the world's history. 

§ 3. The Loyalists were Mercilessly Persecuted. 

Years before the war actually began, the Loyalists, who 
believed in the right of King George III to tax the colonies, 
and who believed that his government was a better govern- 
ment than any other that could be maintained in the New 
World, found themselves unpopular with their opponents, 




220 



BUILDING THE NATION, 




General George Washington. 



Born, 1732; died, 1799. Frontiersman: land-surveyor: soldier: politician 
business man; statesman; President. 



THE WBETCHED PLIGHT OF THE LOYALISTS. 



221 



and found, too, that their opponents were bitter and dis- 
agreeable in their opposition. As hostilities proceeded, 
the lot of the King's friends grew worse and worse. There 
were many hundreds of thousands of them, in some colonies 
a majority of the people, at the beginning of the war. The 
most severe measures were adopted against them. As the 
various royal governments failed one after another in the 



r ^. 




^t£&$L& 



MM in Willi I 



Paper-Money in the Time of the Revolution, with the Signature of John Hart, 
of New Jersey, a Signer of the Declaration. 

colonies, the Loyalists could get no protection from the law. 
The governments set up by the Committees of Correspond- 
ence and the allied associations, issued law after law against 
them. The Loyalists could not collect rents and debts due 
them ; were required to take Continental money at its face 
value ; and could not prove title to lands or goods. Most 
of them were utterly ruined in property. They were per- 
secuted by their neighbors, thrown into jail, even confined 



222 BUILDING THE NATION. 



in underground dungeons. Thousands of them were tarred 
and feathered. In sickness they could secure no physicians. 
Their only safety was to get into Boston or Philadelphia, 
and, when their money gave out, to depend upon the charity 
of the English army. At the end of the war, a hundred 
thousand of them were exiled. Even Washington approved 
of these merciless measures ; they were the price of liberty 
for this nation. For the Loyalists fought in the English 
armies, served as spies in the patriot camps, and led in 
many of the Indian outrages. There was war in America, 
— not merely the war of revolution against the established 
government backed by arms, ships, and men, but also the 
war between fellow-countrymen, the bitterest of all wars. 
The result of all this persecution was, that at the close of 
the war almost none who believed in monarchy were left in 
this country of ours. The idea of aristocracy of privilege 
by birth was completely eradicated from the American 
character. We were free to develop democracy as the fun- 
damental principle of our new nation. All the rich Tories 
had disappeared. Ail the rich patriots were poorer than 
.before. In their common equality of condition the people 
were to build up a new nation. 

§ 4. Congress Proclaimed the Declaration of Independence. 
Boston had been won by Washington, 1776, and the ex- 
pedition against Canada had failed, 1775-1776, when men 
began generally to agree in Congress and out of it, that 
some statement should be made to the world as to the pur- 
poses and object of the war. During the years 1775 and 
1776 many circumstances were leading the colonists on to 
the idea of complete separation from the mother-country. 



PAINE S " COMMON SENSE. 



223 



George III contemptuously refused to listen to a peaceful 
petition from Congress. He hired thousands of German 
soldiers to fight in America. The wisdom of independence 
was first plainly stated to the colonists in a remarkable 
pamphlet called " Common Sense," written by Thomas 
Paine. This pamphlet had a wide circulation, and pro- 
duced a profound effect. Paine had come to America from 
England in 1774, but had immediately understood the situ- 




Signing the Declaration of Independence 



ation. He began his argument for independence with the 
now famous words, " These are the times that try men's 
souls." In 1776 Washington wrote, " When I took com- 
mand of the army, I abhorred the idea of independence ; 
now I am convinced nothing else will save us." Long 
debates were held, a committee was appointed, instructions 
were given, and the result was the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, unanimously adopted July 4, 1776, and signed 



224 



BUILDING THE NATION. 














y^.* 






(m 



hXSZ 












£sl^sX/i> 




±L> pt^S'A**- 



deposited at this Dtpartmaa. and thai I hart * 



Of the signers of the Declaration not half were native-born 



Americans of native-born parents. 



THE GREATNESS OF ENGLAND. 225 

soon afterwards. The Declaration was written out by 
Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, but its sentiments — even 
its words and phrases — were dictated by Congress in vari- 
ous resolutions. With Jefferson upon the committee were 
John Adams of Massachusetts, Franklin of Pennsylvania, 
Livingston of New York, and Sherman of Connecticut. 
John Hancock, the Boston merchant, Treasurer of Harvard 
College, President of Congress, was the first signer ; but 
after his signature followed the signatures of many other 
famous men. Franklin said, " We must all hang together 
lest we all hang separately." This was humorous, and 
helped the deputies to bear themselves cheerfully as well as 
boldly in the dangerous business of rebellion against the 
greatest empire of the earth. 

§ 5. The Patriot Cause was Weak, and England was "Very 
Strong. 

In 1776 England was mistress of Ireland, of India, and 
of the best part of North America. She had defeated 
Spain and France in war, and had surpassed Holland in 
trade. Italy was poor and ignorant, and had only a small 
population. Russia, Prussia, and Austria were not yet great 
nations in wealth and power. England was supreme. She 
was the richest nation in Europe. Hers was the best army, 
hers the best navy, hers the best merchant-marine. Her, 
population was eight million, while that of her American "* 
colonies in rebellion was three, of whom half a million were 
Negroes, and more than another half million were Loyalists. 
Over against such strength as hers the rebels in America 
could not be expected to win ; and none in Europe did 
expect them to win. They had not even the advantage of 



226 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



a strong central government. Specie money, which is the 
life-blood of modern war, was almost entirely wanting, for 
it was drained away by the foreign trade. But the rebels 
were courageous, and courage directs destiny. 



§ 6. Elements of Weakness on England's Side. 
Yet England was not as strong as she appeared. She 
was heavily in debt, for the long wars with France had cost 

immense sums of money. 
Her people Ave re tired of 
war. To get soldiers her 
government was com- 
pelled to hire many men 
in Germany. America 
lay at a great distance. 
Transportation of troops 
required several weeks, 
and was costly. Her 
army and navy depart- 
ments were very corrupt, 
and vast sums of money 
were stolen by officials, 

George III. Born, 1738; died, 1820. aR( J never spent for the 

uses intended. Her own Parliament was corrupt. The 
members of the House of Commons did not represent pub- 
lic opinion. The great cities had almost no members, 
while little " pocket boroughs " sent many, who really 
represented not the " commons," or plain people, of Eng- 
land, but the lords, in whose pockets were the documents 
giving them the right to name members for these boroughs. 
Parliament was full of dull people, who made very bad 




WHIGS AND TORIES IN ENGLAND. 



227 



mistakes in legislation. The king was by no means an able 
man ; during his long reign of sixty years he went insane 
five times. England had enemies abroad ready and anxious 
to make trouble for her. Worst of all 
for her cause, just as America 
was divided between Patriots 
and Loyalists, so England was 
divided between Tories and 
Whigs ; and the Whigs, led by 
the great orators and statesmen, 
William Pitt and Edmund Burke, 
were never believers in the at- 
tempt to compel America to sub- 
mit to taxation. When, in 1782, 
the Whigs, under Lord Rock- 
ingham, came into control of 
England's affairs, peace with the 
United States was soon declared. 
Parliamentary election of 1782 
peace and recognition of American independence. In that 
age only a small proportion of Englishmen could vote. It 
is not seriously to be doubted that a majority of the Eng- 
lish people never favored coercion of America by force. 




William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, Whig 

Statesman. Born, 1708; 

died, 1778. 

The Whigs won in the 
because they advocated 



§ 7. European Nations Sent Aid. 

In 1778 Benjamin Franklin succeeded in securing an 
alliance with France. Soon afterwards he secured loans of 
money from Holland ; and even Spain lent financial aid. 
Then came the soldiers and marines of France, without 
whom Yorktown would not have been won. Prussia had 
sent, in the early days of the war, De Kalb and Steuben to 



228 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



drill the militia. Other good soldiers came from Ireland. 
Paul Jones left Wales as late as 1773 to become one of 
the greatest naval heroes in all history. Indeed, for one 
cause and another, in every part of western Europe, includ- 
ing the mother-country, there were individual persons and 
whole parties anxiously hoping to see the rebellion success- 
ful and a new nation established. 



§ 8. Benjamin Franklin -was the Diplomat of the "War. 

It was in the direction of the foreign affairs of the 
struggling colonies that Benjamin Franklin proved himself 

second only to Washington as 
the maker of the nation-to-be. 
He represented in Europe a sin- 
gle country, not merely a collec- 
tion of rebelling colonies. Al- 
ready in 1776, when he went to 
Europe as America's ambassa- 
dor in fact, though not yet in 
name, he was older than Wash- 
ington ever lived to be. His 
great achievements in business, 
in politics, in science, in inven- 
tion, in literature, and in jour- 
nalism were behind him. He 
had for years before been colonial agent in London. From 
his many-sided contact with life he had gathered wisdom. 
Almost as dignified as the majestic General, even more 
venerable, he won the hearts of people by his benign pres- 
ence and manner and his ready wit. The ladies of the 
French court were especially charmed with him. By his 




Benjamin Franklin. 
Born, I 706 ; died, I 790. 
Scientist: author: financier: diplo- 
mat: statesman. 



BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 



229 



personal efforts he persuaded the statesmen and financiers 
of Europe to indorse the patriot cause. With him, at 
various times, were John Adams, James Monroe, and 
Thomas Jefferson, but he was the recognized leader of 
■them all. He remained in Europe upon this diplomatic 
errand until 1785. 




Charles Watson Wentworth, Lord Rockingham. 
Born, 1730: died, 1782. English Prime Minister, Whig, 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Upon the question of national independence, what advance had the 



second Continental Congress made beyond the first ? 

2. For what reasons was a commander-in-chief chosen ? 
what reasons was George Washington the one selected ? 



And for 



230 BUILDING THE NATION 



3. What was the most important difference between the patriots and 
the loyalists ? 

4. Describe the treatment of the loyalists during the Revolution. 

5. What was the result of the Revolution upon the doctrine of an 
aristocracy of privilege ? 

6. Give some of the causes that led to the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence. 

7. Describe the relations of each of the following men to the Declara- 
tion : Washington, Paine, Jefferson, John Adams, Livingston, Sherman : 
and tell what Franklin did for the Declaration, and what he said of it. 

8. What was the position of England in 1770 among the nations of 
the world ? 

9. What were the elements of strength and weakness upon the side 
of the patriots ? 

10. What were the elements of weakness upon the side of England ? 

11. What did European nations do to help the new nation ? 

12. What diplomatic services were rendered by Benjamin Franklin '? 

13. Compare the services of Washington and Franklin. 

14. Was the final treaty of peace. 1783, granted by a Whig or by a 
Tory ministry ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

The Declaration of Independence : see Appendix V. 

Hart's Contemporaries : Vol. II., pp. 434 et seq. Congress; King George 

the Third ; Tories ; Hessians ; Washington ; Treaty of 1783. 
Burke's Speech on Conciliation with America; with Introduction by 

Thompson. 
Lodge's Life of Washington. 
Wilson's Life of Washington. 
Morse's Life of Jefferson. 
Ford's The Many-sided Franklin. 
Morse's Life of Franklin. 

Harper's Encyclopaedia of United States History : Thomas Paine, etc. 
Consult the standard encyclopaedias for : Robert Morris ; Gouverneur 

Morris; George III. ; "Pocket Boroughs" ; William Pitt, first Earl 

of Chatham ; Edmund Burke ; Lord North ; Lord Rockingham. 
Van Tyne's Loyalists in the American Revolution. 
Bancroft's History of the United States: Vols. V. and VI.; especially 

Vol. V., pp. 3-23, 562 581 ; and Vol. VI., pp. 5-58. 
Fisher's True History of the Revolution, pp. 182-246, 



THE IDEA OF A NATION. 231 



Fiske's American Revolution. 

Lodge's American Revolution. 

Green's View of the Revolution. 

Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. III. 

Lecky's England in the Eighteenth Century : The American War. 

Tyler's Literary History of the American Revolution : The Tories. 

Tomlinson's Stories of the American Revolution. 

TOPICS FOR INQUIRY AND INVESTIGATION. 

1. Robert Morris, Financier of the War of Independence. 

2. The Wretched Plight of the United Empire Loyalists. 

3. Life of the Loyalists in New York and Philadelphia. 

4. Signing the Declaration of Independence. 

5. "Pocket-boroughs" in England. 

6. The Political Struggle in England between the Whigs and the 
Tories. 

7. How the Loans were Secured in Holland. 

8. Franklin's Interview with the Council of George III. 

9. Franklin in Paris. 

10. Edmund Burke and William Pitt, Friends of the Colonies : their 
speeches and services in behalf of America. 

11. The Continental Congress : quality of the members, political 
methods, etc. 

12. The Political Opposition to George Washington. 
18. The Hiring of the Hessians from their Prince. 

14. The Notable Patriot Leaders : Samuel Adams, etc. 

15. Views of the War of Independence upon the Continent of Europe : 
of the Nobles ; of the People. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1774. First Continental Congress. 

1775. Beginning of the War of the Revolution. 

1775. Choice of George Washington as commander-in-chief. 

1776. Declaration of Independence. 

1776. Choice of Benjamin Franklin as foreign representative. 

1778. The Alliance with France. 

1781. Surrender at Yorktown. 

1782. The Whigs in England secure control of Parliament. 

1783. The Treaty of Peace with Great Britain. 



232 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR, 1775-1783. 



§ 1. The "War Involved All the Colonies. 

The War of the Revolution lasted eight years, but active 
hostilities did not continue constantly throughout this long 

period. It was a war car- 
ried on by both sides un- 
der great difficulties. 
Compared with many 
other wars it was not im- 
portant for the size of its 
armies or for their losses in 
battle. In its results, how- 
ever, it was of the greatest 
importance, for it brought 
into being the greatest 
nation of the earth. The 
War began in Massa- 
chusetts, and ended in Vir- 
ginia. It left the country 
poor but free. During its 
course battles were fought 
in every colonial state ex- 
cept New Hampshire, and 
it caused civil disturbances 
even there. It may be di- 
vided into three periods, 
of the Northeastern, the 
Middle States, and the Southern campaigns. 




The Old North Church, in which Paul Revere hung 
his Lantern the Night before Lexington. 
(The Claim of this Church is Disputed.) 



THE BRITISH PUSHED ON FROM LEXINGTON. 



233 



§ 2. Lexington and Concord Saw the First Fighting. 

The first blood of the War was shed at the village of Lex- 
ington, Massachusetts, April 19, 1775. General Gates, 
military governor of Massachusetts, foreseeing the impend- 
ing conflict, sent an expedition of about eight hundred Brit- 
ish regulars to seize the 
muskets, powder, and other 
war supplies that had been 
collected at Concord, about 
eighteen miles northwest 
of Boston. The news of 
this move had been spread 
through the region the 
night before by Paul Re- 
vere in his famous ride, and 
when the troops reached 
Lexington they found a 
small body of the local 
militia or " minute men " 
drawn up on the Common. 

The Continentals were ordered to disperse, and, not being- 
quick to do so, were fired upon and scattered with the loss 
of several lives. The British then marched to Concord, a 
few miles beyond. They found there not the stores which 
they desired, but another and larger body of minute men, 
and, after a skirmish, thought it prudent to retreat in the 
direction of Boston. Among these " minute men " and other 
eager volunteers soon to come from all parts of the colonies, 
were many who had fought with Pepperell at Louisburg and 
with Braddock near Duquesne. They had little respect for 
regular troops and perfect confidence in the militia. 




The Minute Men at Lexington. 



234 



BUILDING THE XATICXN. 



§ 3. All New England was Aroused. 

It was high time for the British to retreat, for the alarm 
had spread and the country was roused. The minute men 
from all the region round hurried to the scene, and from 
behind trees and fences began shooting the unfortunate 
regulars. Under the steady rain of bullets from an unseen 
enemy the men became completely demoralized, and reached 
Lexington in a condition of rout. Here, they found re- 




The British Retreating from Concord. 

enforcements of nine hundred men and two pieces of artil- 
lery. They continued the retreat now in better order, though 
still harassed, until they reached Charlestown and the cover 
of the British fleet about sunset. They had lost some three 
hundred men. The amazing news brought Israel Putnam 
and Benedict Arnold from Connecticut, Stark from New 
Hampshire, Greene from Rhode Island, and Daniel Morgan 
from Virginia, with volunteers. General Gage found him- 
self besieged by so large a force of troops that he dared not 
venture out of Boston. 



A LAB(J-E ARMY BESIEGED BOSTOX. 



235 







1 4 1 






".:2."a ' w If 




1 > "-•-> ■ -i- 




. f; 


Hter^fc,. 


:*■ --** 



Ethan Allen Demanding the Surrender of Fort TiconderogE 



§ 4. Colonials Took Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

The news of war stirred up Vermont, and some of the 
" Green Mountain Boys " under Ethan Allen captured Fort 
Ticonderoga, and 
others, under Seth 
W arner, took 
Crown Point, at 
the head of Lake 
Champlain. These 
two points com- 
manded the route 
between New York 
and Canada, and 
the forts, though 
lightly garrisoned, 
were full of mili- 
tary stores ; two hundred pieces of artillery were taken and 
a large supply of powder, which was at that time a most 
precious commodity. 

§ 5. At Bunker Hill the English Won Too Costly a Victory. 
Early in June General Gage was re-enforced, and after- 
wards superseded by William HoAve, who came into the 
harbor with a fleet from England. The British force in 
Boston was now ten thousand men. The heights of 
Charlestown — Bunker and Breed's Hills — commanded 
the city, and it was decided by the British to fortify them. 
This purpose became known to the Americans, who de- 
termined to seize and hold the heights themselves. They 
fortified the hill nearest Boston with earthworks the night 
before the 17th of June, 1775. At daylight they were 



236 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



discovered still at work, and were fired on from Boston and 
from the ships in the harbor, but little damage was done. 
The city was in a state of great excitement. Copps Hill, 

the church spires, and 
the roofs of the North 
End, were covered with 
people that afternoon, for 
it was soon known that 
the British would assault 
the works. It required 
only a few hours to con- 
vey three thousand troops 
in boats over to the 
Charlestown shore, and at 
three o'clock of a beauti- 
ful summer afternoon the 
English were ready for 
the assault. The redoubt 
was manned chiefly by 
those who had been work- 
ing- upon it, a motley 
crowd of countrymen. 
Badly armed though they 
were, they knew how to 
shoot. The red-coated 
regulars, however, did not 
meet them at Bunker Hill, but charged up Breed's Hill, a 
half mile away, and a lower elevation of land. There the 
Americans were ready for them. When one hundred yards' 
range was reached, they fired on the British, who wavered, 
broke, and fled to the landing-place. Gage, exasperated 




Map of Boston. (From Old Print.) 



THE BRITISH WON AT TOO GREAT COST. 



237 



by the repulse, upon the pretext that shots had been fired 
from the houses at his troops, set the village of Charlestown 
on fire. The wooden houses burned rapidly, and the meet- 
ing-house steeple was soon a mass of flame. The British 
troops re-formed, and charged again up the hill. Again they 
were repulsed and driven back in disorder. 

General Clinton then came over from Boston to counsel 
and advise. Through his efforts and those of the other 
officers the troops were rallied for a third effort. This last 



The British Advancing Up Breed's Hill. 
(Bunker Hill Monument stands upon this hill, and was dedicated in 1843. 
Webster delivered the oration.) 



Daniel 



assault met with better success, as the powder of the Ameri- 
cans began to give out. After a hand-to-hand conflict at 
the top of the hill, the Continentals retired, and made good 
their retreat over Charlestown Neck. Of the British troops 
over one thousand were killed or wounded. The colonial 



238 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



loss was less than half as many. This battle was the first 
test of provincial troops against the British regulars. The 
colonials were highly elated with the result. 



§ 6. "Washington Forced the English out of Boston. 

Shortly after the battle of Bunker Hill, George Wash- 
ington, who had been made commander-in-chief of the 

American armies, arrived on the 
scene, and made his headquarters 
in Cambridge. For some months 
he had all he could do to get the 
colonials into form as an army. 
He had to teach the patriots the 
military virtues of order, prompt- 
ness, and obedience. He kept 
the British in Boston by guard- 
ing a line nine miles long. 

In March, 1776, having re- 
ceived some heavy guns from 
Ticoncleroga, Washington threw 
up earth-works on Dorchester 
Heights, south of Boston, and 
mounted the guns there. They 
commanded the city ; and the British, not caring to attack 
the position, evacuated Boston, and sailed for Halifax. This 
move of the English was due to Lord Howe, who was a 
Whig in politics at home, and did not believe in the at- 
tempt to compel the colonists to submit to taxation. He was 
a brave officer, and had led the battle line at Bunker Hill, 
but as a statesman he was hopeful that a long and costly 
war could be avoided. 




Sir William Howe. 
Born, I 729 ; died, 1814. General, Brit- 
ish Army : Whig Statesman. Tried by 
Parliament, but acquitted, upon 
charges of incompetence and of indif- 
ference to British interests. 



THE CANADIAN CAMPAIGN FAILED. 



239 



§ 7. The Canadian Campaign Failed. 

Meantime there took place the sublime but useless cam- 
paigns of Arnold and Montgomery against Canada. In the 
autumn of 1775 Arnold led a thousand soldiers thro.ugh the 
Maine forests to Quebec, 
which he attacked in De- 
cember. There was slain, 
on the last day of the year, 
the veteran soldier Richard 
Montgomery, general in 
command, who had led an 
expedition from New York 
to join Arnold. Though 
severely wounded, Arnold 
tried to take -the city at 
various times during the 
winter. In the spring 
with a handful of surviv- 
ors, — for many of those 
whom hardship and starva- 
tion and the sword had 
spared, the dreadful small- 
pox had taken, — he es- 
caped to Lake Champlain, 
only to be again defeated. 

The failure to win Can- 
ada for the patriot cause 
put an end to the hope that the Revolution would be truly 
Continental. Well was it for us that Arnold lived to help 
defeat Burgoyne in the following year ! Had he died at 
.Saratoga, he would have left a patriot's name to last as long 
as our country endures. 




240 



BUILDING THE NATION. 




§ 8. Moultrie Made a Gallant and Successful Defence of 
the Fort in Charleston Harbor. 

In June of this 
year, 1776, in the 
South, there was 
won, after a long 
siege, a gallant 
victory by Moul- 
trie, in the defence 
of the fort in 
Charleston Har- 
bor that ever since 
has borne his 
name. In their 
resistance to its 
bombardment by 
the English fleet, he and his comrades displayed signal 
bravery. The victory is one of many illustrations in history 
of the superior strength of land batteries against ships. 

§ 9. In the Summer of 1776 the Colonials and the English Met 
on Long Island, and the Colonials Retreated to "White Plains. 

After taking Boston Washington turned his attention to 
New York. He found only a few troops there, but upon 
the call of Congress for more, soon had his army increased 
to twenty thousand men. With these he occupied New 
York and Long Island, fortifying Brooklyn Heights, which 
commanded the city. He had not long to wait for the 
arrival of the British. Just before the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence was adopted by Congress, General Howe came to 
New York with a squadron of ships from Halifax. He 
disembarked his army at Staten Island, and a few days later 



Sergeant William Jasper at Fort Moultrie, 1776, who was 

killed at Savannah, 1779, in again trying to recover 

our country's flag. 



THE RETREAT OF THE CONTINENTALS. 



241 



was joined by his brother, Lord Admiral Howe, with a fleet 
and large re-enforcements. The British army at New York 
then numbered about 
twenty-five thousand. On 
August 26 General Howe 
landed fifteen thousand 
men on the shore of 
Gravesend Bay. In three 
columns, one taking the 
shore road under Bay 
Ridge, another the pres- 
ent Fort Hamilton Ave- 
nue, and a third the King's 
Highway, he made a triple 
advance on the Americans. 
Several thousand of them 
outside of the intrench- 
ments on the Heights at- 
tempted to check these movements, but were outnumbered, 
outflanked, and defeated, with a loss of fifteen hundred 
men. If Washington had not unwisely refused to accept 
several hundred Connecticut horsemen, the result might 
have been far different. Though a superb horseman him- 
self, he never learned the use of cavalry. 

The easy-going British then settled down to besiege the 
camp on the Heights, for with the lesson of Bunker Hill 
behind them they did not care to assault fortified heights. 
Washington decided not to wait for them. If he had done 
so, this might have been the end of the Revolution, for his 
army was in great danger of being surrounded and cap- 
tured. Taking advantage of a foggy night, he transported 




The Retreat from Long Island. 



242 BUILDING THE XATIOX. 



his troops in small boats across the East River, and, leav- 
ing a considerable force in New York, encamped with most 
of his army on Harlem Heights. 

It was here that the patriot youth, Nathan Hale, was taken 
as a spy by the British and died with these magnificent 
words upon his lips, " I only regret that I have but one life 
to lose for my country." Small wonder that Lord North 
looked upon the colonial colleges as schools of treason ! 
For Hale was a college graduate and a schoolmaster. 

§ 10. The Colonials Crossed into New Jersey. 
It was soon apparent, however, that New York must be 
abandoned. After needless delay Howe's forces crossed 
from Brooklyn, and landed at Kip's Bay near the foot of 
the present East Twenty-third Street, three miles above the 
town. The American troops at the Battery had to make 
their retreat by way of the Greenwich road, and three hun- 
dred of them fell into the hands of the enemy. The British 
ships were now patrolling the East and North Rivers. It 
seemed that the whole island must be abandoned. After 
retreating northward as far as White Plains, where Howe 
gained a slight advantage at considerable cost, one-half of the 
American army was transferred to New Jersey by the circui- 
tous route of the Highlands ; and Washington made his head- 
quarters on the Jersey side at Fort Lee, leaving General 
Charles Lee on the east shore with the rest of the army. 

§ 11. The Colonials Crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania. 
Shortly after this, Fort Washington, at the upper end of 
Manhattan Island, was captured by the English, and the 
garrison, two thousand strong, were made prisoners. Then 
six thousand English troops were landed above Fort Lee 






THE BETREAT THROUGH NEW JERSEY. 



243 



on the Jersey shore. To avoid being bottled up on the nar- 
row neck of land between the Hudson and the Hackensack 
Rivers, Washington retreated to Newark, and thence to 
New Brunswick and Trenton, where he crossed the Dela- 
ware into Pennsylvania. During this rapid retreat Wash- 
ington had sent repeated orders to Lee to join him. 

Lee was insubordinate. He thought he was a better gen- 
eral than Washington, and wished to conduct a campaign 
himself without interference. These were hard days for 
Washington. He was unsuccessful at New York, and then 
he was hunted through New Jersey with his ragged, hungry, 





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/ A^tffi ^fefegfiLs &* - 










r--fWmB 


'i- /S^v..,: ■■ -, ,' & l~-\. 


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Washington Crossing the Delaware above Trenton. 



and diminishing little army. The well-furnished regulars 
followed constantly at Washington's heels, and almost every 
one thought his race was run. So, doubtless, thought Lee, 
and was glad of it ; for he slowly got across the Hudson, 
and in a leisurely way proceeded to Morristown with his 



244 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



men. Then retribution overtook him. He was caught in 
a tavern outside his own lines by a party of British dra- 
goons, carried to New York, and put in jail. This capture 
left General Sullivan in command of the troops at Morris- 
town, and he at once joined Washington. Thus re-en- 
forced, Washington turned in his tracks, and was ready to 
strike back. 

§ 12. Washington Won a Victory at Trenton. 

The British troops in New Jersey were strung out on 
lines between New York and Trenton, and at the latter 




The Colonials Entering Trenton. 

place a body of Hessians — fifteen hundred in number — 
were stationed. On Christmas Eve of 1776 Washington 
crossed the Delaware, in spite of great difficulties from 
floating ice, nine miles above . Trenton ; and about four 
o'clock in the morning of Christmas Day, in two columns, 
— one taking the river, the other an interior road, — 



THE HESSIAN " HIRELINGS." 245 



marched for Trenton in a blinding snowstorm. About 
eight o'clock the troops reached their destination. The 
Hessians had been having a good time over-night, eating and 
drinking, and were hardly awake. Their commander, Colonel 
Rail, in attempting to form his troops in line of battle, fell 
mortally wounded. A few hundred of the light horse and 
infantry, who had taken alarm at the beginning of the fight, 
succeeded in escaping to Bordertown ; but the main body, 
attacked on two sides, fled to the Princeton road. Find- 
ing it occupied by a regiment of Pennsylvanians ready to 
charge, they threw down their arms and surrendered. 

A thousand prisoners and six cannon were taken by the 
Continentals. The American loss was, two frozen to death, 
two killed, and several wounded. Among the wounded 
was Lieutenant James Monroe, afterwards President of the 
United States. It added to the satisfaction which this 
superb strategic victory aroused among the patriots that 
these new prisoners were the " Hessian hirelings," who 
could speak no English, and were part of the twenty-two 
thousand subjects hired of the Grand-Duke of Hesse-Cassel 
in Germany, because King George could not get enough 
soldiers in England to fight against their American kinsfolk. 

§ 13. Washington Won a Victory at Princeton, and Retreated 
to Morristown. 

On hearing of this battle, Lord Cornwallis, who had been 
in command of the English troops in New Jersey, but was 
about to sail for England to report that the war was practi- 
cally over, was ordered by General Howe to remain, and 
was placed in command at Princeton. He then advanced 
upon Trenton with a large army, Washington had nearly 



246 BUILDING THE NATION. 



as many soldiers, but half of them were fresh militia, only 
a few days in camp. He did not dare to cross the Dela- 
ware under fire. Leaving his camp-fires at Trenton in 
sight of the enemy, with a few men to keep them burning, 
he hurried his army around the rear of the English, and 
fell upon its rear guard at Princeton. Cornwallis, looking- 
for attack in front, was surprised by this attack in the rear. 
Washington drove one of the three regiments of the enemy 
west to Trenton, and another east to New Brunswick, and 
captured the third in the buildings of Princeton College. 
Cornwallis found Washington far too able for his general- 
ship to overcome, and called him thereafter " the Old 
Fox." Pursuing him, Cornwallis drove Washington into 
the hills of Morristown, where he did not care to continue 
the warfare. From his headquarters at Morristown, Wash- 
ington for some months watched, waited, and harassed the 
British on occasion. His reputation as a general was now 
made. The French were beginning to think it might be 
worth while to help us ; and Frederick the Great, of Prussia, 
a military genius himself, who studied our war carefully, 
put forth the opinion that Washington's New Jersey cam- 
paign was one of the most brilliant in history. 

§ 14. The British Delayed and Enjoyed Themselves. 

Under the watchful eye of Washington at Morristown, 
General Howe did not feel disposed to attempt the march 
to Philadelphia, his objective point, and several months 
elapsed without much fighting. He continued to hope for 
some change in affairs that would bring the war to an end 
by political rather than military measures. He and his 
retinue of officers were comfortable in New York, where 



CONTINENTALS WIN AT BENNINGTON AND ORJSKANY. 247 



society life was gay, and where, as too often happens in war, 
his friends were making a great deal of money out of the 
army contracts for provisions and supplies. The British 
soldiers in New York numbered thirty thousand, which 
was many more than the city's ordinary population. The 
soldiers lived in all possible places, including schools, 
churches, stores, and barns. The garden farmers got the 
highest prices for their products. The American Tories 
were crowded in wherever they could get. The death-record 
of the prisons was appalling. Altogether the situation was 
extraordinarily favorable to wrong and fraud of every kind. 



§ 15. Marquis de Lafayette from France Joined the Colonials. 

In July, 1777, the country was interested and cheered 
by the arrival from France of 
the Marquis de Lafayette, a /^"~~ v\ 

wealthy young nobleman of hardly / * || \ 

twenty years. Out of sympathy 
with the American cause, he had 
fitted a vessel at his own expense, 
and leaving his young wife had 
sailed for this country wdth eleven 
other military men, among them 
Baron de Kalb, the German vet- 
eran, who was made a general in 
the American army. Lafayette 
also had received a military edu- Marquis Jean 
cation in France, and was given Motier de Lafayette. 

a commission as general. He Born ' l757: died - ,834 - Genera!; 

, . 'reformer: statesman. 

joined the staff of Washington, 

and between them a warm and lasting friendship grew up. 




248 BUILDING THE NATION. 



§ 16. The English Planned a Great Campaign. 

During the summer of 1777 an ominous war cloud 
appeared in the North. The British General, Burgoyne, 
was sent from Canada with nine thousand men to invade 
New York, by the way of Lake Champlain. At the same 
time it was planned that a force of two thousand men under 
Colonel St. Leger should co-operate with Burgoyne. They 
were to ascend the St. Lawrence River to. Lake Ontario, 
and then cross to Oswego to enlist the Indian Six Nations 
and any Tories that could be found. Later, they were to 
join Burgoyne in the valley of the Hudson. Also, Howe 
was expected to come up from New York City with a 
large force. By these campaigns the eastern half of New 
York was to be subjugated, and New England was to be 
wholly cut off from the other colonies. Howe sent General 
Clinton north at once, but with so few troops that after 
taking the forts in the Highlands of the Hudson and many 
thousand " rebel " rifles, he felt it necessary to retreat to 
New York rather than fight far larger numbers of the Con- 
tinentals upon their own ground. 

§ 17. Stark Won a Battle at Bennington. 
The British campaign was well planned. Burgoyne de- 
scended Lake Champlain with great success, taking Fort 
Ticonderoga on the way, July 5, 1777. After landing at 
the foot of the lake, he found that he had before him a 
country hard to cross. Meanwhile local militia, under 
General Schuyler, made it still harder for him. By felling 
trees, and damming Up streams, they so delayed his march 
that he was three wgeks in getting to Fort Edward, twenty 
miles from the Lake, At that point General Burgoyne sent 



CONTINENTAL VICTORIES AT ORISKANY AND SARATOGA. 249 



out a thousand men to capture supplies stored at Bennington. 
They did not reach their destination. They were trapped, 
surrounded, assaulted, and most of them captured by Colonel 
John Stark and his patriot militia in shirt-sleeves, six miles 
out of Bennington. 

§ 18. Herkimer Won an Important Battle at Oriskany. 
Over in western New York, St. Leger was in great diffi- 
culties. General Herkimer fought and defeated the British, 
Tories, and Indians in a fierce and bloody engagement at 
Oriskany, but at the cost of his own brave life. Benedict 
Arnold, who was then dispatched against St. Leger, sent 
ahead so many false reports about a total defeat of Bur- 
goyne and the tremendous forces with which the colonials 
were coming after him, that St. Leger was frightened back 
to Canada before Arnold could reach him. But he left 
stores and baggage behind him, which were welcome booty 
to the Continentals. 

§ 19. Schuyler's Campaign Compelled Burgoyne to 
Surrender. 

Burgoyne's position was now growing uncomfortable. 
His supplies were giving out, and he was surrounded in a 
hostile country by bands of militia under Schuyler, Arnold, 
and St. Clair. They came from all over New England and 
New York, and outnumbered the British two to one. 
About this time General Gates, an officer more distin- 
guished in politics than in war, by order of Congress 
superseded Schuyler in command. The situation had been 
created largely by Schuyler, and Gates stepped in at the 
last moment to get the glory of it. Burgoyne had, to 






250 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



act and at once, if he meant to escape. Gates had in- 
trenched himself on Bemis's Heights, ten miles southeast of 
Saratoga, and was there savagely attacked by Burgoyne. 
The attack failed with serious loss to the British ; and a 
second effort, October 7, was also unsuccessful. Burgoyne 
then fell back upon Saratoga, and being starved out, sur- 
rendered with six thousand men. They marched all the way 




At Burgoyne's Surrender, October 17, 1777. 



to Boston, and then were transported by ship to Virginia, 
where they were kept in a camp as prisoners until the end of 
the war. Many, preferring the New World, never returned 
home. This battle and this march did more to encourage the 
patriots than even the victory at Trenton. Saratoga was 
the military crisis of the War of Independence, and helped 
the cause of liberty in Europe as well as in America, 



THE BRITISH WON AT BR ANDY WINE. 251 

§ 20. A Roundabout Movement to Philadelphia. 

Meantime in August Howe had given up the plan of 
assisting Burgoyne, and had decided to take Philadelphia, 
for he was tired of life in overcrowded New York, and pro- 
fessed to think that the rebels might surrender if they 
should lose their largest and richest city where the Congress 
of the colonies met. But he did not care to march a hun- 
dred miles across to New Jersey, at the risk of some plot 
by Washington to capture at least a part of his army or 
commissary. So he embarked his forces on ships, sailed 
around the coast and up Chesapeake Bay, and landed them 
at Elkton, Maryland, about forty miles below Philadelphia. 
In all he was nearly three months on the way; was actually 
nearer Philadelphia when at New Brunswick than when at 
Elkton ; and had left Washington with six thousand men in 
New Jersey to find him with eleven thousand in Pennsyl- 
vania. He then marched up to Brandy wine Creek with 
eighteen thousand men, where Washington encountered him. 

The battle of Brandywine, or Chad's Ford as it is some- 
times called, was a defeat for Washington, as might be ex- 
pected from the inequality of the forces engaged. The British 
under Knyphausen threatened the American center at Chad's 
Ford while Cornwallis made a flanking movement in a great 
circuit on the left, crossing the Brandywine several miles 
above. He did not succeed in surprising the Americans, 
however, as Sullivan, with the main body, marched to inter- 
cept him. The result of this battle was that Washington, 
with a loss of a thousand men, retreated to Chester, and then 
to Philadelphia, where he intrusted to Alexander Hamilton 
the task of " requisitioning " blankets and clothing for his 
needy troops, a task performed with tact and ability. 



252 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



§ 21. Washington Abandoned Philadelphia. 

The necessity of Washington's abandoning Philadelphia 
was soon evident. Congress, which had been holding its 
sessions there, adjourned to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and 
afterwards to York. Washington retreated up the Schuyl- 
kill river a short distance ; and Howe with the British 
forces entered the city September 25, and soon after en- 
camped at German town. 



m 




The Fight at the Chew House, Germantown. 



§ 22. Washington Lost the Battle of Germantown. 

On October 4, Washington attacked the camp at Ger- 
mantown with four columns of troops at daybreak. The 
British were surprised, but the attack was made difficult by 
the inclosures, stone fences, and houses of Germantown 
which broke up the lines of advancing troops. Neverthe- 
less, a victory would have been won, had there not been a 



THE FRENCH NATION AGREED TO HELP. 253 



sudden panic among the Americans, who in the darkness 
and fog found one of their own divisions firing upon another. 
The British soon rallied, the superior discipline of regulars 
began to tell, and the Americans were driven off with a 
loss of over a thousand men. The British loss was about 
six hundred. 

Washington a few weeks later went into winter quarters 
at Valley Forge, twenty miles west of Philadelphia. Nor 
does history explain why the British never ventured out of 
Philadelphia to attack him there. 

§ 23. France Recognized our Independence, May, 1778, 
and Promised Aid. 

The general results of the year 1777 were in the highest 
degree important. The capture of Burgoyne and his six 
thousand men was the turning-point of the war, since it 
brought the French alliance. Franklin was at this time 
negotiating for us at Paris; and in the spring, May 2, 1778, 
a messenger arrived from France bearing two treaties, one 
of commerce and the other of alliance and defense. Great 
rejoicings followed throughout the country. It is said that 
Lafayette grasped Washington's hands, and shed tears of 
joy at the news. Washington celebrated the event by firing 
a salute that woke the echoes among the hills about Valley 
Forge. It was indeed a much needed encouragement. We 
owe national gratitude to King Louis XVI of France, half 
Spanish Bourbon, half Pole, that he was, for this the best 
deed, indeed one of the few good and wise deeds, of his life, 
and to Count Vergennes, his Minister and Franklin's admirer 
and friend. In one of the darkest periods of the war a for- 
eign dynasty in France saved the cause of American liberty. 



254 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



§ 24. The Winter at Valley Forge was Followed by the Re- 
treat of the English from Philadelphia in 1778. 

The winter at Valley Forge had been one of unparalleled 
hardships for the troops. Cold, hunger, and the want of 
clothing, had combined to make them miserable. Washing- 
ton, himself distressed by the misery of his men, was com- 
pelled to endure also the malice of political enemies, and 
the distrust of many who had been friendly. Efforts were 
made to depose him from his place at the head of the 




Washington at Valley Forge, 1777-8. 

American army. It was at one of the lowest points in 
the fortune of the country during the Revolution that the 
French alliance with the promise of a fleet and an army 
came to lift us out of the slough of despondency. The 
first important effect of this news was to frighten the Eng- 
lish out of Philadelphia, for the French fleet was destined 



WASHINGTON DISPLAYED HIS BRAVERY AT MONMOUTH. 255 



to cut them off from access to the sea by the Delaware 
River. Howe had been recalled to England, to answer for 
his failure to assist Burgoyne, and Sir Henry Clinton in 
command was hurrying his 
troops across New Jersey to 
New York Bay with Wash- 
ington after him. The new 
British commander was a 
Tory, and meant to prose- 
cute the war vigorously. 
But Howe had taken most 
of the British army back 
with him to England; and 
Clinton never had in all half 
as many men as Howe had 
for the subjugation of the 
" rebels." 



25. A Battle was Fought 
at Monmouth. 



Baron Steuben, who had 
served under Frederick the 




Clinton's Retreat from Philadelphia. 



Great, had drilled the colonial troops during the winter 
at Valley Forge, greatly to their benefit. Washington at- 
tacked the British at Monmouth Court House. But for 
the treachery of General Lee, who, unfortunately, had been 
exchanged and had returned to his American command, the 
patriots might have won a great victory. At a critical 
moment Lee, who was to make the first attack, ordered his 
troops to retreat. Washington, coming up with the rest 
of the troops, rebuked him fiercely, and ordered him to 



256 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



the rear. Then he rode forward, rallied and re-formed 
the broken lines. In that rough encounter Moll Pitcher, a 
gunner's wife, seeing her husband fall, herself took his place. 
Her ordinary business was fortune-telling, but she will be 
long remembered for her bravery that afternoon. The sharp 
engagement that followed Washington's arrival was ended 
by the approach of night. Under cover of darkness the 
British slipped away and escaped to the Highlands of the 




The Gunner's Wife at the Battle of Monmouth. 

Navesink, where they found Lord Howe's fleet. It had 
just come on from Philadelphia, ready to carry them to 
New York. Lee was a traitor, worse by far than Benedict 
Arnold, who openly deserted to the enemy in 1780. At 
this time he was working in the interests of the English 
while holding his command as a gene'ral in the American 



A FEW HEROES WOX THE GREAT NORTHWEST. 257 



army. It is well to remember that there was a worse traitor 
than Arnold during the Revolution, for Lee never helped us 
in any way, while Arnold has many notable achievements 
to his credit on the patriot side. A court-martial convicted 
Lee of an " unnecessary, disorderly and shameful retreat," 
and suspended him from his command. Later Congress 
dismissed him from the army, but the full extent of his 
treachery was never known till the papers were found some 
years ago in England. These disclosed his true relations 
with General Howe, who hoped to put an end to the war 
by capturing Washington, and kindly persuading him that 
the rebellion was a mistake ! 

§ 26. George Rogers Clark Undertook to Capture the 
Great Northwest. 

During the summer of 1778 George Rogers Clark, an 
intrepid and able young Virginian, persuaded Governor 
Patrick Henry to send him on an enterprise that was noth- 
ing less than the capture of the great Northwest beyond the 
Ohio. This vast wilderness was claimed by Virginia as a 
part of her charter dominions. There were a few forts in 
it, all of which, except Detroit, were garrisoned by French 
and Indians in the pay of the English. Hamilton, the 
commander at Detroit, had incited the Indians to border 
outrages, and Clark believed that if the British posts in 
the Illinois country were captured, these outrages would 
cease. He also expected to confirm the possession of the 
great region to his native State. Aided by the Virginia 
Governor he collected two hundred hardy frontiersmen. 
Embarking at Pittsburg, they floated down the Ohio 
through the wilderness a thousand miles, and landed in 



258 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



in what is now southern Illinois. Marching to Kaskaskia 
a hundred miles across country, he surprised the fort while 
festivities and dancing were in progress. There was no 
resistance. " Go on with the dance," said Clark, " but 
remember you now dance under Virginia, not England." 
The French and half-breed Indians had no particular objec- 




The English Recapturing Fort Vincennes, Soon to Lose it Forever. 

tion to Virginia as compared with England, and accepted the 
new allegiance. Clark made a friend of the French priest, 
Gibault, who induced the French garrisons at Cahokia and 
Vincennes to take the oath of allegiance and to hoist the 
American flag. Then Clark built a fort at the Falls of the 
Ohio, which was the beginning of Louisville. At twenty- 
five years of age he had the mind of an empire-builder. 



THE BRITISH WOK IN THE SOUTH. 259 



§ 27. Clark Won Fort Vincennes and All the Northwest. 

Shortly after this, Hamilton, the British commander 
from Detroit, appeared at Vincennes, and retook it. When 
Clark heard of it, he set out with his two hundred men to 
vet it back. A winter march of two hundred miles over 

o 

a difficult country followed. The latter part of this march 
was across the overflowed lands of the Wabash, where 
the men waded through water and broken ice waist-deep 
for miles. Clark took the fort after a sharp fight, and the 
stars and stripes went up at Fort Vincennes to stay. W r ith 
but two hundred men George Rogers Clark had conquered 
the great Northwest, not as he supposed for Virginia only, 
but for all the United States. 

§ 28. The War Raged in the South. 

After the British retired from Philadelphia to New York, 
May, 1778, there were no important military operations for 
two years in the middle colonies. It was a period, how- 
ever, stained by some of the bloodiest outrages of the whole 
war. In July, there occurred in Pennsylvania, the massacre 
by British soldiers, Tories, and Indians, of all the inhabi- 
tants of the Wyoming Valley. Similar parties made descents 
upon towns and villages of New England, New York, Vir- 
ginia, and the Carolinas. The English, finding they could 
make no progress in the more thickly settled colonies of the 
North, had turned their attention chiefly to the South. At the 
close of the year 1778, the British captured Savannah, and 
over-ran the thinly settled colony of Georgia. The royal 
governor was reinstated ; and General Lincoln, in an attempt 
to recapture Savannah with the aid of the French fleet in 
the fall of 1779, was disastrously defeated. 



260 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



§ 29. General Lincoln was Captured in South Carolina. 

In the following spring, 1780, Sir Henry Clinton led an 
expedition against Charleston, and captured the city with 
General Lincoln and his whole army of about seven thou- 
sand local militia. Expeditious were sent out through 
South Carolina until it was almost wholly conquered, 
Clinton then returned to New York, and left Cornwallis at 
Charleston to hold and extend his conquest. After this 
the chief resistance to the British in South Carolina was 
that of the brave partisan leaders, Marion, Sumter, and 





The Medal Voted to General Anthony Wayne by Congress. 



Pickens, who took to the mountains and the swamps, and 
harried the foe with constant raids. 



§ 30. Anthony Wayne Took Stony Point. 

In the summer of 1779, marauding expeditions were 
sent by the English from New York into New England. 
One in jmrticular, under Tryon, burned Norwalk and Fair- 
field, plundered New Haven, and at Sag Harbor was ge1> 
ting ready for a descent upon New London when it was 



1780 WAS A GLOOMY YEAR. 261 

suddenly called back by alarm at the capture of Stony 
Point on the Hudson by the Americans. The works at 
Stony Point, planned by the Americans for the protection 
of King's Ferry on the Hudson, had fallen into the hands 
of the British in an unfinished condition. They mounted 
guns and maintained a garrison there, to the great annoy- 
ance of the surrounding country. Washington ordered 
Anthony Wayne to attempt its capture. Two columns of 
troops surprised and took the fort at midnight, killing sixty, 
capturing five hundred and fifty men, and losing in killed 
and wounded about one hundred, July 16, 1779. This 
raid served its chief purpose as a diversion, for Stony Point 
was soon after abandoned. Congress voted a medal to 
General Wayne for his brilliant exploit, as indeed it voted 
medals to many heroes of the war, when it was not too 
busy criticising and otherwise discouraging their constant 
patriotism. It was an unfortunate feature of the war that 
the quality of the men in Congress constantly declined. 

§ 31. 1780 Marked the Lowest Point in the War, and 
Recorded the Treason of Benedict Arnold. 

The year 1780 was the gloomiest of the Revolutionary 
War. The Continental currency was discredited almost to 
the zero point. It was impossible to pay the soldiers, or to 
provide food, clothing, and ammunition. Business was al- 
most at an end, and the people were discontented. Chaotic 
conditions prevailed in many parts of the country ; and at 
times, except for the financial ability of Robert Morris, the 
Philadelphia banker, the operations of war must have ceased 
for want of money. Rich as George Washington was in 
lands and goods, his own money was entirely gone. He 



262 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



had to pay a physician's bill by giving him one of his 
family horses ; but his confidence in the patriot success 







y^Lc^ -¥*>< 



sy&/fr2-*>4<7 



'r?t4 



Andre's Pen-Portrait of Himself; and the Pass Given to Him by Arnold. 

was so strong that he was buying even at that period " on 
credit '* as a speculation rich valley lands on the Mohawk 
River in New York. Upon that hopefulness, upon that iron 
will to win out, the fortunes of mankind were turning. 



THE PATRIOTS WERE AGAIN DEFEATED. 263 



In the summer of this year the country was shocked by the 
treason of Benedict Arnold. In 1778 he had been put in 
command of Philadelphia. There he married a Loyalist wife, 
and his political sympathies began to change. He had already 
felt himself ill-treated by Congress, which had disallowed 
certain of his expense accounts in previous campaigns. He 
lived an extravagant life in Philadelphia, and, getting into 
financial difficulties, endeavored to extricate himself by spec- 
ulations in privateering that involved him in further trouble. 

An investigation was made, and he was ordered by Con- 
gress to be reprimanded by the head of the army — an 
unpleasant duty, which was discharged by Washington as 
considerately as possible, for he thought highly of Arnold's 
military services and abilities. But the iron entered into 
Arnold's soul. He sought the command at West Point 
on the Hudson to betray it. In this treachery Major Andre, 
of the English army, was employed by General Clinton and 
General Arnold as the intermediary. He was caught, and 
the papers found on him disclosed the plot. Tried by 
court-martial, he was executed as a spy. Andre was a 
Frenchman, all of whose compatriots in America were 
helping the Continentals. He had been the head of all 
the gayeties in New York and Philadelphia when Howe 
was in command, and was the unfortunate victim of cir- 
cumstances. 

Arnold escaped to a British war- vessel, received money 
and a commission in the army, and then fought against his 
country. In one of his raids, that into Virginia, Thomas 
Jefferson offered $25,000 for his head, so bitter was the 
feeling of the patriots against a hero turned traitor for 
money and the hope of station. Arnold died in obscurity 
in London, rich, but without friends and without honor. 



264 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



§ 32. The Americans Lost the Battle of Camden. 
In 1780, General Gates was appointed to the command of 
the Southern department. He was joined by De Kalb with 
fifteen hundred Continentals, and by various bodies of mil- 
itia, which brought his total force to six thousand men. At 
Camden, South Carolina, he encountered Cornwallis, and 
suffered the worst defeat that ever befell an American army. 
The Continentals made a stand, and the brave De Kalb was 
mortally wounded ; but the rest of the army, to use Gates's 
own language, " ran like a torrent," and Gates himself with 
the help of a horse ran still faster and without a halt till 
Charlotte was reached, sixty miles away. He seems to have 
felt it his duty to lead his troops in retreat, although he 
was never known to lead a charge upon the enemy. When 
sime of his flying soldiers caught up with him at Charlotte, 
Gates with other officers made some effort to reorganize the 
remnants of the army. About a thousand men were col- 
lected ; but Congress had heard of 
Camden, and ordered an investi- 
gation. Gates was then removed 
from the Continental army. 



§ 33. Nathanael Greene Took 
Command in the South. 

As successor to Gates, Wash- 
ington named General Greene, one 
of the bravest and ablest military 
men of the times. 

Shortly before Greene took com- 
mand, Cornwallis sent Major Fer- 
guson to cut off the retreat of a 
body of patriots from Georgia into 




Nathanael Greene. 



Born, 1742 ; died, 1786. General 
Continental Army. 



MORGAN WON A BRILLIANT VICTORY. 265 



North Carolina. Ferguson ventured too far into the moun- 
tains and presently found . himself confronted by a strong 
force of mountaineers and backwoodsmen under Shelby and 
Sevier, afterwards the first governors of Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee. He retreated to King's Mountain on the borderline 
of the Carolinas, and there, after a brave defence in which 
he was killed, his force of a thousand men surrendered. 
Greene, arrived at Charlotte, December 2, 1780, and took 
command of a thousand ragged and unpaid soldiers. There 
was no money in the military chest, and the service of these 
men was forced by impressment. 

§ 34. Daniel Morgan Defeated Tarleton at Cowpens. 
Undismayed by circumstances, Greene at once began 
active operations. Under him, at this time, was Daniel 
Morgan, the best leader of light-armed troops that the Rev- 
olution produced. Greene sent him to threaten the British 
posts at Ninety-Six and Augusta. At the same time Corn- 
wallis sent his best officer, the famous Colonel Tarleton, to 
meet him. The battle of Cowpens followed. It was a fine 
example of strategy. Half of Morgan's force was made up 
of South Carolina militia, the other half of Continentals and 
a troop of horse. The militia were drawn up in line by 
themselves, and fled at the first onset, pursued by Tarleton. 
Next, the Continentals, drawn up on one side, made a retro- 
grade movement that in a measure distracted the British 
from the pursuit, then suddenly faced about, pouring a 
deadly volley at thirty yards, and charged. The cavalry 
also charged upon the British horsemen who were after the 
flying militia, and at once the pursuers were being pursued, 
the militia were rallied, and Tarleton' s whole force was put 
to rout. The British lost over six hundred men, killed 



266 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



and prisoners, with all their baggage and artillery. Tarle- 
ton, with a few horsemen, escaped to Cornwallis, who was 
not many miles away. Morgan's loss was less than eighty. 
Well aware that Cornwallis, with three men to his one, 
would soon be after him, Morgan now retreated rapidly into 
North Carolina to join Greene. Cornwallis, in the ensuing 
game of strategy, was led a chase across North Carolina, 

where he was cut 
off from his base 
of supplies at 
Charleston, and 
had to Hve on 
the country, as 
also did Greene 
and his forces. 

§ 35. Cornwallis 
Went North. 

At Guilford, 

forty miles south 

of the Virginia 

line, Greene 

turned and 

fought. The 

battle, while won 

by the British, 

was disastrous to 

them. Their 

loss was larger 

Cornwallis's Campaign, Camden to Yorktown. thail Greene's ; 

and Cornwallis soon after thought it best to join Phillips 
and Arnold, who were ravaging Virginia. 







CORNWALLIS SURRENDERED AT YORKTOWN. 267 



§ 36. Greene Won a Battle at Eutaw Springs. 

Greene returned to South Carolina. There he hoped to 

drive Rawdon from Camden, where he was stationed with 

a thousand men. He fought Rawdon a drawn battle at 

Hobkirk's Hill, April 26, 1781, and after a series of minor 




At the Battle of Eutaw Springs. 

operations, which nearly cleared the British out of South 
Carolina, fought the battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8, 
with Colonel Stuart, the successor of Rawdon, who had 
returned to Europe. The result of this battle was practi- 
cally a victory. The British forces thereafter were shut up 
in Charleston, and the Carolinas were cleared of them. 



§ 37. The Tories Fought for the King, 
This campaign of Greene's was a peculiar one in that it 
was a war within a war. The Tories were numerous in 



268 BUILDING THE NATION. 



the two States, and civil war between the Whig and Tory 
population went on during the whole time of the British 
occupation. The partisan leaders, Marion, Sumter, and 
Pickens, with their patriot bands, fought the Tories and the 
' British in a continuous guerilla warfare. Greene took ad- 
vantage of every possible element in his campaign, and, 
though never brilliantly victorious, must be credited with 
driving the British out of the Carolinas. 

§ 38. Cornwallis Surrendered at Yorktown, 1781. 

Meanwhile Cornwallis in Virginia found himself at the 
head of eight thousand men. Under orders from Clinton at 
New York, he seized and fortified Yorktown, on the penin- 
sula between the James and York rivers, where he could be 
reached by British ships. At first he was opposed in Vir- 
ginia by Lafayette only with about four thousand men. 
Washington, re-enforced by a French army of six thousand 
men under Count Rochambeau, early in 1781 began active 
operations about New York, keeping Clinton in a constant 
state of alarm; but in August the arrival of a French frigate 
with the news that De Grasse with a large fleet would soon 
arrive in Chesapeake Bay, caused a quick change in the , 
American plans. Clinton was kept in daily expectation of 
an attack, and did not learn that he had been deceived 
until Washington and Rochambeau were on the way to 
Yorktown with several days' start. When Clinton discov- 
ered the purpose of this move, he tried to draw off a part 
of the American troops by sending an expedition under 
Arnold, which plundered and burned New London, but 
nothing could divert Washington from his purpose. The 
French and the American forces took shipping at the head 



A GREAT SEA-FIGHT. 



269 



of Chesapeake Bay, and sailed down to Yorktown, where 
De Grasse blockaded the approaches from the sea. The 
allied forces soon had Yorktown shut off on the land side, 
and Cornwallis was securely fastened in his camp. After 
three weeks of siege and fighting, during which the well- 
uniformed French and the ragged Continentals vied with 
each other in brave deeds, Cornwallis gave up the game of 
war, and surrendered October 19, 1781. This practically 
ended the war. Lord North, the British prime minister, 
when he heard 
the news, threw 
up his hands, and 
cried, " It is all 
over." 



§39. A Great Sea- 
fight -was Won 
Across the Sea. 

In the same 
year, 1773, that 
Thomas Paine of 
England went to 
Pennsylvania to 
prepare the Amer- 
ican mind for lib- 
erty at the sugges- 
tion of Benjamin 
Franklin, John 
Paul Jones of 
Scotland went to 
Virginia. In 1775 




Paul Jones (John Paul). 



died, 1792. 
Patriot : 



Scotch Sea-captain: American 

Russian Admiral. 



he was made second in command of 
the new and feeble American navy. After many brilliant 



270 BUILDING THE NATION. 



exploits in small ships, he secured, 1779, a fair ship, hither- 
to engaged in the French East India trade, with a little 
fleet of smaller ships. In his crews he had thirty Ameri- 
cans. The rest were men of all nationalities, even Malays. 
He named his flag-ship the Bon Homme Richard in honor 
of Benjamin Franklin's " Poor Richard," and in that ship 
defeated, in a terrific fight, the British Serapis, twice as 
strong. This was the crowning victory of his great career, 
which more than justified all of Franklin's effort to get a 
navy for him. No other event of the War of Independence 
added more to the advancement of the American interests 
in European courts. It especially pleased France, the only 
nation that had recognized American independence. We 
must add to the long list of the names of foreigners who 
did splendid service for America, — Steuben, De Kalb, 
Montgomery, Lafayette, — that of the naval hero, Paul 
Jones, and we must also add to the many achievements of 
Franklin, that of keeping Paul Jones in the American ser- 
vice. When nobles and gentlemen in Europe criticised 
America for employing in high stations men of humble 
birth, Franklin used to refer to this great sea victory. Said 
he, " Captain Paul Jones ever loved close fighting." 

§ 40. Prisons and Prison-ships were Scenes of Death. 

The number of men slain in battle on both sides during 
the Revolutionary War was not half of the number that per- 
ished in the prisons and prison-ships maintained by the British, 
especially in the latter period of the war, after the recall of 
Sir William Howe. In New York City, churches and sugar- 
houses were packed with patriot prisoners suffocating for 
want of air, starving for want of food, dying for want of 



ENGLAND ADMITTED HER ERROR. 271 



medicine. In the East River were the prison-ships, miser- 
able hulks, in one of which a thousand prisoners were con- 
fined at a time, and from which eleven thousand men were 
brought forth dead. Such was the fearful result of the 
avarice of the prison-contractors, and of the indifference of 
the British army-lords to the sufferings of others. From 
such horrible scenes, we, who live in the twentieth century, 
turn with averted faces ; but let us remember the price paid 
by thousands on thousands to make this nation independent, 
with liberty, justice, equality of rights, and opportunity for 
each and all. And let us be fair to those who fought 
against us, remembering that all this inhumanity was the 
dreadful reprisal upon the patriots for their treatment of 
the United Empire Loyalists. War is unspeakably awful, 
and immeasurably evil. Hitherto, it has been a part of the 
price of human progress. 

§ 41. England Made Peace. 

The English people, heart-sick with the story of prison- 
ships, army corruption, victories of Americans on land and 
sea, and fearful lest the war should extend into Europe by 
increased activity of France, at last recognized that the 
war was a failure, overturned the Tory government, and 
put the Whigs in power. Desultory hostilities of no great 
importance continued for a few months. On April 19, 
1783, the eighth anniversary of the battle of Lexington, 
Washington formally proclaimed the cessation of hostilities, 
and the treaty of peace with England was finally signed 
in Paris, September 3, of that year. On November 3 the 
American patriot army was disbanded, and on November 25 
the last British soldier sailed away from New York. 



272 BUILDING THE NATION. 



§ 42. Causes of the Patriot Victory. 

It is well to notice the real military significance of this 
war. Washington, Schuyler, Greene, and the other patriot 
leaders, won again and again by their masterly strategy, as 
seen in Washington's own victories at Trenton and Prince- 
ton, and in his march and siege in the York town campaign. 
The patriots were fine marksmen, but miserably equipped, 
and often starved and almost naked. The terms of enlist- 
ment were . short, and there were many deserters. Though 
there were many men inclined at times to mutiny, there 
were few cowards among them. The Continentals lost 
many more battles than they won. On the other hand, 
Howe, Burgoyne, Clinton, and Cornwallis finally lost be- 
cause of their blunders and of their indecision in times of 
crisis. Howe was a procrastinator, and had little heart for 
the work of subduing those whom he regarded of fellow 
Englishmen. Burgoyne was badly supported by Howe. 

As for Clinton and Cornwallis, they never had enough 
troops to defeat the Americans with their French allies. 
Besides, there was a divided nation behind them. England 
made several very serious mistakes of policy, such as employ- 
ing the Hessian hirelings, the Indian savages, and the ren- 
egade Arnold. All of these measures not only imbittered 
the patriots, and also made friends in Europe and even 
among the neutral colonials for the patriot cause ; they 
alienated the sympathy of the Whigs in England and in 
her army in America. The French alliance turned the 
scale, not only by the actual assistance given to the coloni- 
als, but also by threatening another Old World war, for 
which England was neither eager nor prepared. And yet 
even without the support of France Washington would 



THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 273 



never have been defeated. He would have retired into the 
Appalachian Mountains, and have made there a nation, as 
he often planned to do in the darkest days of Valley Forge. 
In the end England was not so much hopelessly beaten in 
actual war, as convinced of the necessity sooner or later of 
letting her colonial children go free to set up their own 
national establishment. Never before or since did such 
blows as even the surrenders at Saratoga and Yorktown 
compel England to end a war. It is indeed true that in 
1783 England had both more men and more 'money for the 
prosecution of the war than in 1775. Rather England 
ended it as a moral issue : not overwhelming defeat, but 
right and wisdom advised the peace. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What reasons are there to call our War of Independence a great 
war ? 

2. In what colonial States was it fought, and how long did it last ? 

3. What place was the first scene of bloodshed ? 

4. Describe the retreat from Concord. 

5. Who were some of the leaders of the minute men and volunteers ? 

6. Who took Ticonderoga and Crown Point ? With what benefit to 
the patriots ? 

7. Describe the siege of Boston. 

8. Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. 

9. What were the results of the battle ? 

10. Describe the movements that forced the British out of Boston. 

11. Describe the campaign against Canada. 

12. What victory was won by Moultrie in June, 1776 ? 

13. Describe the battle of Long Island. 

14. Describe Washington's retreat ; and its various stages. 

15. Describe the victory at Trenton. 

16. Describe the battle of Princeton. 

1.7. Where did Washington establish himself after these victories ? 
What was the new opinion now formed of him ? 

18. What were the feelings of the patriots regarding the Hessians ? 



274 BUILDING THE NATION. 



19. Discuss Sir William Howe, his action on the field of Bunker Hill, 
his retreat to Halifax, and his occupationof New York, 1776-1778. 

20. Give an account of Lafayette. 

21. What was the British plan of campaign for the summer of 1778 ? 

22. What did Howe do to prevent its success? 

23. Describe Burgoyne's advance from Canada. 

24. Give an account of the battle of Bennington. 

25. How was St. Leger forced to retreat to Canada ? 

26. What causes led to Burgoyne's surrender ? 

27. What were its effects upon the patriot cause ? 

28. Describe the battle of Brandy wine. 

29. Where did Congress hold session during the British occupation of 
New York ? 

30. Give an account of the battle of Germantown. 

31. Give an account of the French treaties of 1778. 

32. Describe the winter at Valley Forge. 

33. What was the effect of the treaty of alliance upon the British 
occupation of Philadelphia ? 

34. Give an account of the battle of Monmouth. 

35. Who was a worse traitor than Arnold ? 

36. Give an account of Clark's taking of Kaskaskia. 

37. Complete the account of Clark's winning of the Great Northwest. 

38. Give an account of the events near Savannah, 1778-1779. 

39. Describe the taking of Charleston, and expeditions thereafter. 

40. Give an account of the victory at Stony Point. 

41. Why is 1780 called the gloomiest period of the war ? 

42. Describe the treason of Benedict Arnold. 

43. Give an account of the battle of Camden. 

44. Describe Greene's campaign in the Carolinas. 
45 Describe the battle of Cowpens. 

46. Describe the movements of Cornwallis. 

47. Describe Greene's movements after Cornwallis withdrew to 
Virginia. 

48. Give an account of the strategy that led to the surrender of Corn- 
wallis. 

49. Give an account of Paul Jones. 

50. Why did England give up the war ? 

51. What mistakes did England make in the prosecution of the war ? 

52. What flags have waved over Vincennes ? 

53. Give reasons for the patriot victory. 



! 



WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 275 



QUESTIONS OF SUMMARY. 

I. Review the British military occupation of the great cities : — Boston, 
New York, Philadelphia, Savannah, Charleston. 
II. Make a chronological list of the important battles of the war. 
III. Make lists of the patriot victories, of the British victories, and of the 
doubtful battles, discussing the points involved. 



SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. II., pp. 45-632. 

Hart's Source Readers, No. 2, pp. 191-309. 

Hart's Source Book, pp. 145-160. 

Fisher's True Story of the Revolution. 

Fiske's The American Revolution. 

Lodge's War of the Revolution. 

Smith's Prologue of the Revolution. 

Codman's Campaign against Canada. 

Carrington's Battles of the American Revolution. 

Tower's Lafayette in the American Revolution. 

Bryant and Gay's (Scribners*) Popular History of the United States. 

Balch's The French in America during the War of Independence. 

Van Tyne's Loyalists. 

Hart's Formation of the Union, pp. 69-109. 

Bolton's The Private Soldier Under Washington. 

Hinsdale's How to Teach and Study History, Chap. XVIII. 

Mace's Methods in History, Part Two, American Periods. 

Bancroft's History of the United States, Vol. V. 

Tomlinson's Stories of the American Revolution. 

Guerber's Story of the Thirteen Colonies. 

Consult biographies of the great men of the period. British, French, and 
American ; especially Morse's Benjamin Franklin. Irving's Wash- 
ington. Wilson's Washington. Lodge's Washington. 

Consult also Harper's Encyclopaedia of U. S. History for the battles, Lar- 
ned's History for Ready Reference, Vol. V., pp. 3217-3289, and the 
standard encyclopedias upon the various topics of the text. 

See also Readings, pp. 230-231. 

The amount of literature upon this heroic period is immense. For a list 
of books, part fiction, part history, see Appendix VII. The entire 
value of historical fiction is in its development of the atmosphere or 
spirit of the times. No reliance can be placed upon the details recited. 



276 BUILDING THE NATION. 



TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION. 

1. What became of the several hundred thousand Loyalists at the 
beginning of the war ? 

2. What became of the exiled Loyalists ? 

3. The "Hessian hirelings" who preferred America as a home, and 
who never went back to Hesse-Cassel. 

4. The Story of Henry Knox ; of Israel Putnam ; of Joseph AVarren ; 
of Daniel Morgan, and other heroes. 

5. The Leaders of the French : Lafayette, Kochambeau, De Grasse, 
etc. See Bancroft, Vol. VI. , p. 32, for suggestions. 

6. The Minute Men. 

7. Washington's Headquarters at Morristown. 

8. The Winter at Valley Forge. 

9. Andre, the Delightful Mau of Society, Artist, Poet. 

10. Nathan Hale, the Patriot Spy. 

11. Lafayette. 

12. " Green Mountain Boys : " Admission of Vermont to Congress. 

13. How Herkimer defeated an ambuscade at Oriskany, bloodiest 
battle of the war ; that is, largest proportion of killed and wounded among 
the combatants engaged. 

14. The Battles in which over 5,000 troops in all were engaged. 

15. Franklin in Paris. 

16. George Rogers Clark. 

17. " Mad " Anthony Wayne. 

18. Nathanael Greene : John Sullivan : Benjamin Lincoln. 

19. Congress and its Interferences with Washington's Plans. 

20. The " Partisan" Leaders, Marion, Sumter, Pickens. 

21. Lord North's Plans and Disappointments. 

22. The Investigation of Howe's Conduct by Parliament. 

23. Was Trenton, Saratoga, or Yorktown the most important military 
event of the war ? 

24. The State of Franklin in the land of "the AVestern Waters." 

25. The Services of the Many Patriot Soldiers of Foreign Birth in the 
American Army : e.g., Montgomery, Hamilton, De Kalb. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1774. Occupation of Boston by the British. 

1775. Lexington and Concord. 
1775. Battle of Bunker Hill. 






WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 277 



1775-1776. Campaign to win Canada. 

1776. Evacuation of Boston by the British. 

1776. Declaration of Independence. 

1776. Battle of Long Island. 

1776. Battle of Trenton. 

1776-1780. Each of the Colonies organizes as an Independent State. 

1777. Arrival of Lafayette, De Kalb, Steuben, and French soldiers. 
1777. Surrender of British at Saratoga. 

1777. Battle of Brandywine. 

1777. Occupation of Philadelphia by the British. 

1778. Alliance with France. 

1778. Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British. 

1778. Battle of Monmouth. 

1778-1779. Seizure of the Great Northwest by the Colonials. 

1779. Occupation of Charleston by the British. 
1779. Capture of Stony Point. 

1779. Battle of the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis. 

1780. Treason of Benedict Arnold. 

1781. Battle of Cowpens. 

1781. Surrender of the British at Yorktown. 

1783. Treaty of Peace. 

1783. British Evacuation of Charleston, Savannah, New York. 

Note. — History without war is no history. "War tests the great 
qualities of peoples : their vigor, honesty, persistence, ideals. While war 
is always deplorable, its outcome has often been, as in the case of our 
War of Independence, a blessing to the nations engaged in it. The best 
features of oar civilized life have been won by war, by the blood-stained 
martyrs and heroes whose arguments have been their swords. War 
is unquestionably awful : but there is a thing more awful, that is 
unrighteous and cowardly peace. 



MAIN PERIODS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

1492-1607. Period of Discovery and Exploration. 

1607-1775. Colonial Period. 

1775-1789. Period of War and Distress, 

1789-1904. National Period, 



278 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE STORY OF EXPANSION. 



§ 1. We Have Made Five Separate Additions to the Contiguous 
Continental United States. 

By the treaty of Paris, 1783, which established the inter- 
national independence of the United States of America, 




a new nation was confirmed in its claims to all the territory 
from the Atlantic Ocean on the east to the Mississippi 
River on the west, and from the Great Lakes on the north 



ADDITIONS TO OUR TERRITORY. 279 



to the Spanish dominions on the south. Apparently this 
was a grant of additional territory beyond the settled 
territory of the thirteen original States, for the land west 
of the Appalachians was not a subject of main contention 
between the colonies and the mother country. That treaty 
left several points in dispute ; viz., the line of the Spanish 
territory in the South ; the exact line in the Northeast 
beyond Maine ; the right of the British to maintain forts 
along the Ohio River and elsewhere for the protection of 
the fur-trade and early settlements. The last question was 
settled amicably by the withdrawal of the garrisons in 
1794. The other questions were settled by treaties. 

The second addition of territory beyond the boundaries 
of the original States, was that of the Louisiana Province, 
in 180-3. At the time of this cession by France the bound- 
aries of the Louisiana Province were not definitely fixed. 
They did not include the Pacific side of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, though the Lmited States based its claim to the 
Oregon country upon the Louisiana Purchase ; and this 
claim was recognized by Great Britain at the time of the 
settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute, as well as by 
Mexico at the time of the Mexican cession. 

The third annexation of the territory was the result of a 
purchase from Spain, when Florida was ceded in 1819. 

The fourth addition of territory was the annexation of 
the sovereign separate nation of Texas. After the annexa- 
tion, in 1845, Texas, in consideration of ten million dollars, 
ceded to the United States all her claims to the northwest 
of her present boundaries. 

The fifth addition of territory was of a small area known 
as the Gadsden Purchase, 1853. 



280 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



The settlement upon the forty-ninth parallel of latitude 
as our northern boundar}^ 1846, gave us undisputed title 
to the Oregon region, Avhich, by right of discovery, belonged 
to Spain. It is customary, though not strictly correct, to call 
this a separate addition of territory. These annexations and 
cessions, together with the treaties fixing the boundaries, 
settled the limits of the contiguous Continental United 
States. 

§ 2. "We have Added Also Other Lands and Islands. 
Next, in 1867, we purchased Alaska, though it was not 

formally occu- 
pied until some 
five years after- 
ward. Russia's 
claim to Alaska 
was by right of 
discovery. The 
withdrawal of 
this great power 
from the New 
World left 
North America 
in the control of 
the English 
speaking na- 
tions, for it took 
place just at the 
time of th e 
withdrawal o f 
France from 
Mexico, 




ADDITIONS NOT ADJACENT. 



281 



The Spanish war in 1898 added vastly to the responsibil- 
ity of our nation. With the Philippine Islands we acquired 
a large territory, and eight million of subjects, five thousand 
miles to the west of the Pacific coast of the Continental 
United States, and became one of the great powers in Asia. 
With Porto Rico in the Atlantic Ocean we acquired a mil- 
lion people, whose relation to us is rather that of citizens 
than subjects. At about the same time the independent 
state of Hawaii was annexed. We have since added sev- 
eral islands as coaling stations for our ships of war in the 
Pacific Ocean. 

§ 3. The United States is an Empire of Fifty Provinces. 

At present the United States stretches nearly nine thou- 
sand miles, — from Porto Rico to Luzon, — or more than 
one-third of the way around the world. Besides these 



ATLANTIC OCEAN 



Sr c-' 




" "^ 



SEA 



Humaca F c^^ 

Coamp ^.„- .Cavey- 

uana Diaz / Guayama ^ 

C:de Mala Pascua 



PORTO RICO 

SCALE OF MILES 



10 20 30 40 



lands completely in the control of the United States, we 
maintain protectorates over Spanish-speaking Cuba, the rich 
and beautiful island south of Florida ; and over a portion 
of Samoa, south of the Philippine Islands. Our interest 



282 



BUILDING THE NATION. 



in Liberia, a republic of Negroes on the west coast of 
Africa amounts almost to a protectorate. Including our 
States, Territories, Colonies, Dependencies, and Protec- 
torates, there are more than fifty separate governments 
within the great central government of the United States, 
whose Capital is Washington. This democratic empire, 
one of the first four empires of the world, — the British, 
the Russian, the Chinese, and the American, — is the prod- 
uct of the people's character, intelligence, and institutions 
in a land of wonderful resources. 

§ 4. The States Surrendered Their Land-Claims to the 
United States. 

To the Confederation of the States which preceded the 
Constitution, we owe the settlement of two very difficult 
questions. Seven of the original thirteen States claimed 



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SCALE OF MILES 



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lands beyond the Appalachians. The six States which had 
no such claims refused to transact business as a nation until 
the other seven States surrendered their claims to the 






THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 283 



Union. If Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, Vir- 
ginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia had maintained their 
claims, there would have been conflicts between them, be- 
cause their claims interfered with each other; and they 
would have had too great an influence in the future nation, 
as compared with the States that had no Western provinces. 

§ 5. The Northwest Territory was Treated as a Region 
Developing into States, Not as a Subject Province. 

The other vexed problem that the Continental Congress 
was able to solve was respecting the nature of the govern- 
ment in the Northwest Territory, formed by the surrender 
of the claims of the individual States. At that time the 
policy of the United States with reference to all lands not 
yet made into States, was to treat them as regions in the 
course of becoming States. Our Territories are not subject 
provinces ; they are comparatively independent political 
units, and each sends its delegate to Congress. Our Con- 
stitution makes each State as well as each citizen, self- 
governing. Our forefathers have manifested a genius for 
the organization of States ; and our Federal Nation is the 
true prototype of the greatly to be desired democratic 
Commonwealth of mankind, toward which all history moves. 

§ 6. Thirty-two States Have Been Admitted Into the Union 
Since 1789. 

Of the forty-five States now in the Union, three were 
carved out of the original thirteen States. New York sur- 
rendered Vermont ; Massachusetts surrendered Maine ; and 
Virginia in the time of the Civil War lost West Virginia 
by secession. 



284 BUILDING THE NATION. 



The first State beyond the Appalachian Mountains to be 
admitted into the Union was Kentucky. Her settlers had 
come very largely from Virginia and the Carolinas. These 
were the first of our Western pioneers. Tennessee soon 
followed. The story of the settlement of each of these 
States relates deeds of the greatest heroism and fortitude. 
The early settlers followed the rivers down stream. In 
many cases whole settlements were wiped out by an attack 
of the Indians, or by the hardships of the winters. 

Ohio, to the north of these, was the next State. Its 
southern settlers came from Kentucky and Virginia. Into 
the northern part of the State came settlers from Connecti- 
cut, New York, and Massachusetts. The two classes of 
settlers met at Columbus, but the transmigration of peoples 
within the boundaries of Ohio long since made the popula- 
tion homogeneous. 

Louisiana was the next State to be admitted. This was 
the first State to be carved out of the Louisiana Province. 
It contained the very important city of New Orleans. Its 
population was very largely French and Spanish by descent, 
but immigration from the east and north long ago made the 
English-speaking people the dominant element. 

Indiana was the next State to be admitted. Its settlers 
in greater part came from Kentucky and Virginia, though 
the migratory New York and Ohio pioneer was a common 
character in the early settlements. For more than a gen- 
eration there were many slaves in Southern Indiana and 
Illinois. 

Next came Mississippi, settled very largely from Georgia 
and the Carolinas. Illinois followed, like Indiana, getting 
its settlers from the South and East. 



ADMISSION INTO THE UNION. 285 



Then came Alabama, filling in the gap between Missis- 
sippi, Tennessee, and Georgia, which were already States. 
Maine, which had been a province of Massachusetts, fol- 
lowed, completing our coast line of States north of Florida. 

The second State to be carved out of the Louisiana 
Province was Missouri, whose settlers came chiefly from 
Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Over its admission 
a great controversy arose, in which the South tried to 
make slavery legal in all the Territories and in such States 
as voted for slavery. 

Not for fifteen years was another State admitted. Then 
Michigan and Arkansas were received, — a Slave and a 
Free State to balance each other, as Louisiana had balanced 
with Indiana, Mississippi with Illinois, Alabama with Maine. 
Florida and Texas were accepted in 1845, completing our 
entire Eastern and Southern coast line. These were the 
first States, many of whose settlers came in by the new 
steam railroads. Earlier States had received some settlers 
who came by the new steam-packets of the Ohio and 
Mississippi Rivers. 

Then came Iowa, to the north of Missouri, a State set- 
tled very largely by Northern people. 

Wisconsin followed in 1848 with much the same kind of 
population as Michigan. With the admission of this State 
all the territory whose independence was acknowledged by 
the treaty of 1783 had now entered the Union of States. 

The next State to enter the Union was California, — 
the first Pacific State, and also the first State in the 
territory secured by the Mexican cession. Its people 
came chiefly from the Northern States, over land or by sea. 

Minnesota was next admitted ; so that in 1858 all the 



286 BUILDING THE NATION. 



territory touching the banks of the Mississippi River on 
either side had been formed into States. This was, per- 
haps, the first State that had felt the great new immigra- 
tion movement from Europe. 

In the succeeding year, 1859, Oregon was admitted. Its 
settlers had come almost entirely from the Northern States. 

Kansas, which, had been the scene of terrible social dis- 
turbances over the slavery question, was admitted in 1861. 
Some of its settlers had come from the South, but many 
had been sent into the State by the Northern Kansas 
Settlement Companies. 

Then came West Virginia, — the fruits of the dissensions 
of the Civil War. Nevada followed in 1864, and Nebraska 
in 1867. By the time of the settlement of Nebraska, the 
movement of the Southern people out of the South practi- 
cally ceased. All the later States have been settled chiefly 
by people in the regions to the East. 

In the Centennial Year, 1876, Colorado was admitted. 
Gold-hunters brought this State into the Union, as they 
had California twenty-six years before, and Nevada twelve 
years before. 

The year 1889 saw four States added, very largely for 
political reasons. These were North and South Dakota, 
Montana, and Washington. In the following year Idaho 
and Wyoming also were added. The addition of these six 
States greatly increased the influence of the North — espe- 
cially of the Northwest — in the national government, since 
each State has two Senators in the national Senate. The 
populations of these six States are the most recent in their 
development of all the peoples within our boundaries. 
They were brought into the States by railroads. Many 






MASON AND DIXON'S LINE. 287 



of them have been immigrants recently arrived from 
Sweden, Norway, and Germany. 

Utah was admitted in 1896, partly in the hope that the 
State would be better able to suppress the polygamy of the 
Mormons than the territorial government had been. There 
were many foreign-born people among its citizens, coming 
chiefly from the North of Europe. 

§ 7. Mason and Dixon's Line. 

In the history of our country, the State boundary line 
between Pennsylvania and Maryland has played a very 
important part. Mason and Dixon were astronomers who 
also did surveying, and were employed by the lords proprie- 
tors of Pennsylvania and Maryland (1763-7) to establish the 
boundary between the two colonies. In the course of his- 
tory Mason and Dixon's line, 39° 43' N., became the boun- 
dary between the free-labor and the slave-labor States. As 
such, popular sentiment in the North even as early as 1820, 
the time of the Missouri Compromise, was against allowing 
slavery north of that line. The Compromise established a 
new latitude, 36° 30' N., as the boundary line. The Dred 
Scott decision of 1857 destroyed the Compromise by making 
slavery legal North as well as South in the Territories. 

§ 8. The Remaining Territories are Likely to be Admitted 
Soon Into the Union. 

There are now left within the boundaries of the contiguous 
Continental United States four Territories, all in the South- 
west, midway between the Mississippi River and the Pacific 
Ocean. These are the Indian Territory, more than half of 
whose settlers are white, and whose Indians now hold land 
in severalty, Oklahoma, Arizona, and New Mexico. The 



288 BUILDING THE NATION. 



populations of these Territories being equal in point of 
numbers and in point of quality to those of many States 
admitted previously, will secure within a few years admis- 
sion into the Union of States. 

§ 9. Comparative Sizes of Eastern, Central, and "Western States. 
Texas is the first State in the Union in size, and the 
sixth in population. Most of the original thirteen States 
are small compared with those admitted later. It is an 
interesting speculation whether the future will see some of 
the small Eastern States combined and some of the large 
Western States divided, so that all may approximate the 
Central States in size. 

§ 10. Seven States Have Each Larger Populations Than the 
Nation Had in 1776. 

In the United States to-day there are seven separate 
States whose individual populations are larger than was the 
entire population of the United States during the Revolu- 
tionary War. These seven States are New York, whose 
metropolis, New York City, has a million people more than 
all the colonies had in 1776, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Mis- 
souri, Ohio, Texas, and Massachusetts. In the nineteenth 
century twenty million people came from the Old World 
to the New. Comparatively few of them settled south of 
Maryland or beyond the Missouri. 

§ 11. We Have Received Most Foreigners Gladly. 
In the early days of our history, from 1607 to 1700 most 
of our people came from England ; but a few came from Scot- 
land, Ireland, Germany, France, Portugal, Spain, Canada, and 
Mexico. From 1700 to 1830 our new settlers came almost 
entirely from the British Isles. Since then we have had 



OUR FOREIGX-BOEX CITIZENS. 289 



over four million immigrants from Ireland alone ; in a 
single decade, 1850-1860, after a great potato famine and 
other troubles, a million Irish came to America. From the 
island of Great Britain we have had since 1830 five million 
immigrants, of whom a million and a quarter came in the 
decade 1880-1890. Germany has sent us over five million 
immigrants, of whom a million and a half came in the 
decade 1880-1890. Norway and Sweden have contributed 
a million and a half persons, over six hundred thousand of 
whom cast in their lot with Americans in the decade 1880- 
1890. Austria has sent us a million, most of them since 
1890, Italy as many, and Russia nearly as many, chiefly 
Jews. We received a million new people in 1903 alone. 
In 1903 there were over twelve million persons of foreign 
birth in our country, nearly all of whom were or intended to 
become American citizens as provided in our Constitution 
and in the laws of the Xation and of the States. Now we 
get immigrants from nearly every country in the world ex- 
cept China. There was indeed a peril lest millions of the 
Chinese should come over : their immigration was forbid- 
den by laws passed by Congress in 1882 and 1888. How 
many Negroes were imported against their will from 1619 
to 1808 no one knows accurately. After 1808 till 1861, 
especially in 1858 to 1860 because of the Dred Scott deci- 
sion, some Negroes were smuggled in every year. Prob- 
ably three quarters of a million Negroes were brought to 
America. These immigrants and the aborigines have caused 
three race-questions, — the red men or Indian, the yellow 
or Chinese, the black or the Negro. The first has been 
solved by wars, legislation, and education ; the second was 
done away with by exclusion ; and the third is being solved. 



290 



BUILDING THE NATION, 



§ 12. The Center of Population Moves Steadily West. 

The middle point of the United States is at Kearney, 
Nebraska. The middle point of the present population is 
near Indianapolis. It may reach a point in Missouri within 
the twentieth century. It is possible that with the progress 
of irrigation in the Rocky Mountain region our densest 
population a century hence may be there in the finest 
climate upon the earth. 




QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What were the boundaries of the United States by the Treaty of 
1783 with Great Britain ? 

% What have been the additions to the territory of the United States ? 

3. Explain the phrase " the empire of the United States." 

4. How were the land-claims of the colonies settled ? 

5. What is our national policy as to Territories ? 

6. What States have been carved out of old States ? 

7. Discuss briefly the admission of each of the States. 

8. What is Mason and Dixon's line ? 

9. What Territories still remain ? 

10. Discuss the present population of our country. 

11. Discuss the subject of immigration. 

12. Where is the present center of population ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

The Histories of the States: see American Commonwealth Series, espe- 
cially Spring's Kansas, Royce's California, Carr's Missouri, King's 
Ohio, Garrison's Texas. 



THE ADMISSION OE NEW STATES, 



291 



Messages and Papers of the Presidents : the admission of the States. 

Sparks' s Expansion of the American People. 

Hosnier's Short History of the Mississippi Valley. 

Mowry's Territorial Growth of the United States. 

See Appendix for List of States, with Dates of Admission ; also for Immi- 
gration Statistics and Areas of Additions to American Population. 

Newell' s Irrigation. 

Consult also the standard encyclopedias upon the various States, including 
Harper's Encyclopedia of United States History. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS. 

1. The Influence of Steamboats upon Inter-State Migration. 

2. The Influence of Railroads and their Land Grants. 

3. The Influence of the Transatlantic Lines. 

4. The Effect of the Homestead and Pre-emption Laws. 

MAP EXERCISES. 




1. Draw on the blackboard an outline map of the States. Name them. 

2. Place upon it the dates of admission of States into the Union. 

3. Set also upon such a map the latest population statistics. 

4. Draw lines with arrowheads to indicate movements of population. 

5. Locate the great cities. 

6. Locate the Scandinavian regions, the German, etc., etc. 



292 BUILDING THE NATION. 

CHAPTER IV. 

FROM REVOLUTION TO CONSTITUTION. 

§ 1. England Recognized the Freedom of Her Colonies. 

After Yorktown most Americans and most Englishmen 
understood that a new nation had come into being in the 
New World. The Treaty of Paris in 1783, recognized an 
already existing fact: the people in this country were 
ready to rule themselves, and the peoples of Europe were 
ready to acknowledge their place among the nations of the 
world. In this treaty England agreed to recognize New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia as 
free sovereign and independent States: to surrender to 
them all the lands from the Atlantic to the Mississippi 
River, and from Lake Superior to Florida; and to permit 
the American people to fish off the Great Banks of New- 
foundland. These thirteen United States agreed on their 
part to enact no laws making the recovery of debts due 
English citizens from Americans difficult, to restore the 
estates confiscated because owned by Englishmen, and to 
cease to persecute the Loyalists. Both parties to the 
treaty agreed to the free navigation of the Mississippi River, 
and to surrender all prisoners of war. 

§ 2. The Confederation of the States was a Failure. 

The War of the Revolution was begun by the Congress 
that was created by the actions of various Committees of 
Correspondence at work in the different colonies. In 1781, 
Articles of Confederation were agreed upon by the thirteen 






WEAKNESS OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 293 



colonies in revolt, which gave the Congress of the States 
larger authority in times both of war and of peace. Each 
State had one vote in Congress. 

The central government had no power to collect taxes or 
duties. It could not enforce its laws upon the different 
citizens directly, but must reach them, if at all, indirectly 
by the consent and effort of their particular States. It could 
not make the States themselves carry out the treaty agree- 
ments made in their behalf with other nations, It could 
only ask the States for money contributions, and could not 
enforce them. It did not command the respect of Euro- 
pean nations, for it could not pay interest on their loans 
during the War of Independence. 

Congress was not a governing body but a conference. 
Domestic war threatened to appear, for the different States 
made laws against each other. They taxed and even for- 
bade interstate trade. The various States at first could not 
agree as to their conflicting claims to the Western lands, 
then scarcely occupied. Some of the States having no 
claims to Western lands refused to accept the Articles of 
Confederation until these lands were given to Congress. 
The States with lands finally surrendered all their claims. 

In 1786, a convention met at Annapolis to consider the 
troubles of this friendly " league " that was so inefficient 
and consequently so dangerous to the life of the new 
nation. Victory in the War of Independence had made 
us a nation without a ruler, whether hereditary monarch 
or elective president. No one had any clear idea how to 
establish a strong central government and yet leave all citi- 
zens as free as in the time of the colonies. Nowhere in 
the world was there a republic to serve as a model. 



294 BUILDING THE NATION. 



§ 3. The Dying Congress of the Confederation Passed 
the Northwest Ordinance. 

The Annapolis Convention of five States, New York, 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Virginia, twelve 
delegates in all, of whom Madison and Hamilton were the 
leaders, decided to ask Congress to call a convention of all 
the States. This met in 1787. In that same year, the 
Congress of the old Confederation passed the great North- 
west Ordinance for the government of the lands surren- 
dered to the whole nation by the various States. This 
Ordinance in the quality of its legal provisions is one of the 
best models of legislation in all history. It provided for 
the making of five new States out of the great Northwest 
as soon as population warranted, for freedom of religion for 
each and all citizens, for trial by jury, and for the mainte- 
nance of free schools ; and, most important of all, it for- 
bade slavery within the Territory. Such was the Ordinance 
that laid the foundations for the future great States of 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin. A year 
later the Ohio Company established the town of Marietta, 
named in honor of Marie Antoinette, queen of France. 
§ 4. The People Suffered Great Commercial Distress. 

During the War of Independence, the poverty of many 
of the American people was extreme. Specie money had 
ceased to circulate except within or near the lines of Eng- 
lish armies. Wherever battles raged, agriculture was 
seriously affected. Fields were not plowed. Often when 
the fields were plowed, the harvests were not reaped. 
Manufacture scarcely existed. Commerce on the seas was 
greatly hindered. Hundreds of thousands of Loyalists 
were reduced to pauperism. Many of them fled to Canada, 



HARD TIMES AFTER THE WAR. 295 



to the West Indies, and to England. Old colonial condi- 
tions of business and social intercourse were utterly revolu- 
tionized. Notwithstanding these difficulties the population 
of the rebellious colonies grew by a million souls, from 
1770 to 1783. It was a hopeful period. Many emigrants 
came from the Old World. 

But after the war was over, a period of frightful depres- 
sion set in. Creditors began to force their debtors to pay, 
and refused to take the paper money of the new States. 
When they could not get specie, they took property instead. 
Thousands of farmers were made homeless, and the jails 
were filled with poor debtors. There were riots and jail- 
breakings. In Massachusetts Daniel Shays organized a 
great insurrection for the benefit of the poor. With diffi- 
culty this insurrection was defeated by the State govern- 
ment. Everywhere the people were restlessly looking for 
a better National government. Many families took occasion 
to move from the settled East to the unsettled West, to the 
Mohawk valley and beyond to the lands of Daniel Boone's 
adventures in Tennessee and Kentucky, and of George 
Rogers Clark's marches in the territory that he had won 
for the new nation during the years of the great struggle. 

§ 5. Mean-while the Leaders were Planning for Better Times. 

In 1787, the Convention recommended by the gathering 
at Annapolis, met at Philadelphia to discuss a new basis 
of agreement between the " free, sovereign and indepen- 
dent States." Washington had always desired the estab- 
lishment of a sovereign central government. Franklin's 
experience in international diplomacy had convinced him 
that no league could last. Hamilton, of New York, one of 



296 BUILDING THE NATION. 



Washington's personal' friends, took a leading part in the 
Convention. Like so many other good Americans of that 
critical time, he was not native-born, but had chosen America 
as his home. Though even then only a very young man, 
Hamilton had designed many excellent plans for stronger 
government. Thomas Jefferson, the political philosopher, 
was ready for the change. So also were Monroe and Madi- 
son of Virginia, Robert Morris and Gouverneur Morris of 
Philadelphia, both scholars and financiers, and Ilufus King 
of Massachusetts, all leaders of public opinion. Hamilton 
in particular, with the assistance of James Madison of Vir- 
ginia and John Jay of New York, had begun, in a publica- 
tion called " The Federalist," a series of articles earnestly 
advocating a stronger national government. The Conven- 
tion that met in Philadelphia had to discuss the great ques- 
tion as to what a stronger and better government would be, 
and what laws would be required for its establishment and 
continuance. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What was England's agreement by the Treaty of Paris ? 

2. Name the " Original States." 

3. What did the Confederation promise ? 

4. What was the nature of the Confederation ? How many votes 
had each State in the Congress ? 

5. In what respects was the Confederation a failure ? What were 
the causes of its failure ? 

6. How was the question of the " western lands " settled ? 

7. In what political condition had the War of Independence left the 
nation ? 

8. Discuss the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. 

9. What States were formed out of the Northwest Territory ? 

10. Discuss the effects of the Revolutionary War upon business and 
agriculture. 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 297 



11. What insurrection was raised in Massachusetts ? 

12. What relation was there between commercial distress and western 
migration '? 

13. What was the purpose of the Annapolis Convention ? What was 
its result ? 

14. Who were the leaders of the Constitutional Convention ? 

15. What was the purpose of the publication called " The Federalist " ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries: Vol. III., pp. 14-79. American Life : — trade, 
fashions, slavery, etc., pp. 80-201. Politics: — town-meetings, etc., pp. 
102-119. The West : —founding of Marietta, etc., pp. 120-160. The 
Confederation, pp. 161-197. Commercial Affairs : —-Shays' Rebellion, 
etc., etc. 

Hart's Source Book, pp. 161-172. Northwest Ordinance, American 
Ideals. 

Hart's Formation of the Union, Chapters V. and VI. Confederation and 
Constitution. 

Walker's Making of the Nation (1783-1817), Chap. I. 

Winsor's Narrative and Critical History : Vol. VII., Chap. III. 

Schouler's History of the United States: Vol. I., pp. 1-30. 

Bancroft's History of the United States: Vol. VI. (last edition), pp. 5-194. 

Fiske's Critical Period of American History, pp. 1-186. 

Roosevelt's Winning of the West: Vol. III. 

Interesting material may be found in the Lives of the men whose names 
appear in § 5. 

Bryce's American Commonwealth, Chaps. I. -IV. 

The Articles of Confederation and The Northwest Ordinance may be found 
in Harper's Encyclopedia of U.S. History ; Larned's History for Ready 
Reference; MacdonakTs Select Documents United States History. 

Constitution of the United States : — See Appendix. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1774. First Continental Congress meets. 

1775-1783. War of Independence. 

1777. The Articles of Confederation are adopted. 

1786. Five States hold a Convention at Annapolis. 

1787. The Constitutional Convention meets. 

1789. George Washington is inaugurated first President. 



298 BUILDING THE NATION. 

CHAPTER V. 

MAKING THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW. 

§ 1. The Men of the Constitutional Convention -were the 
Nation's Picked Leaders. 

To the Convention at Philadelphia every State except 
Rhode Island sent delegates. George Washington of Vir- 
ginia, who had worked diligently to persuade the people 
to hold the Convention, punctual as ever, was in the first 
party to arrive, and was unanimously chosen President. 
After him the greatest figure in the Convention was Benja- 
min Franklin of Pennsylvania. The influence of these two 
men, who said but little, was stronger than that of any 
others. Yet it is reported of Franklin that, being very old 
and feeble, he frequently fell asleep during the discussions ! 

Virginia sent Edmund Randolph, who added more fire to 
the discussions than any one else, and with George Mason, 
also of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, 
declined to sign the Constitution as adopted. Massachu- 
setts and Virginia, the two leaders in the War of Indepen- 
dence, alone sent any delegates who declined to accept the 
results of the Convention. Gouverneur Morris, more than 
any other man, wrote the final draft of the great document. 

The other men perhaps most deserving especial mention 
were James Madison of Virginia, a quiet, scholarly young 
man, with a future then before him ; James Wilson of 
Pennsylvania, who knew the laws and the history of the 
laws of Europe ; Roger Sherman of Connecticut, a poli- 
tician of great experience ; Oliver Ellsworth of the same 
State, as great a lawyer as Wilson ; John Dickinson of 
Pennsylvania, a man of singular acuteness of mind and 



A SEKIES OF COMPROMISES. 299 

sharpness in speech, but with more friends than enemies ; 
Charles Pinckney of South Carolina, a young and brilliant 
man ; John Rutledge of the same State, not a native but 
an Englishman, already old in experience, and wise ; and 
Rufus King of Massachusetts, an active young man with 
great gifts in debate. Such were the men, scholarly, ex- 
perienced, keen, who drafted the great Constitution of the 
United States in that four months' battle of ideas. 

Their service was scarcely less important to this 
nation than that of the soldiers in the campaigns of the 
Revolution : many of them indeed had served honorably in 
the Continental Army, and had proven their patriotism 
under fire. As models they had only the old colonial gov- 
ernments and the ancient so-called republics of Greece and 
Rome. By long and anxious discussion they succeeded in 
forming a new model of government, our republic, whose 
success far exceeds their greatest hopes. 

§ 2. The Constitution is a System of Checks and Balances 

There were several great issues to be fought out in the 
Convention. Some of the " sovereign States " were very 
large, and at least two others were yery small. In the Con- 
gress of the Confederation and in this Constitutional Con- 
vention, each State had one vote. After long debate, it 
was agreed that in the new central government, there should 
be two Houses — a Senate and a House of Representatives. 
The States, large and small, were each to have two senators, 
but as many representatives as were due them according to 
their population. Some of the States regarded slavery as 
desirable : others regarded it as undesirable. After much 
debate, often sharp and unpleasant, it was agreed that the 



300 BUILDING THE NATION. 



slaves should be counted in population, five slaves counting 
as three free men. It was also agreed that the slave-trade 
could not be prohibited by Congress until 1808, then twenty 
years distant. George Mason of Virginia was especially 
bitter against this trade and against slavery itself. 

There was also much discussion regarding the mode of 
electing the Chief Magistrate : the present cumbrous plan of 
an electoral college was finally accepted. As a whole, our 
fundamental law is a wonderful system of divisions and 
departments, of checks and balances, by which the people 
rule through more or less expert representatives. 

The Constitution created a rather stronger central gov- 
ernment than the Convention intended, a result due largely 
to the sage Franklin, the scholarly Madison, and the silent 
but dominant Washington. 

§ 3. The Government is Divided into Legislative, Executive, 
and Judiciary Departments with the Judiciary Supreme. 

The Constitution of the United States is a very complex 
body of fundamental laws such as are admirably suited to 
the control of a great people with diverse interests. It 
divides the government of the federal nation into three 
departments : the Legislative, consisting of the two Houses 
of Congress, with the President exercising a veto power ; 
the Executive, consisting of the President with his Cabi- 
net, whose members are the heads of the departments, to 
carry out the laws ; and the Judicial, consisting of the Su- 
preme Court and the inferior Federal courts, to interpret 
the laws. This division of the Government into depart- 
ments is peculiar to the American federal government; 
but quite as peculiar is the American plan by which the 



RATIFYING THE CONSTITUTION. 301 



Supreme Court decides whether the laws of Congress are 
or are not in accord with the Constitution of the United 
States, and by which its decision to the effect that an act 
of Congress is unconstitutional makes it null and void. In 
the United States the highest authority is not in the Sen- 
ate, is not in the President, but is in the Justices of the 
Supreme Court. Their decision on all laws is final. 

§ 4. The Constitution was Ratified and Amended. 

As soon as the final draft of the Constitution was agreed 
upon by a majority of the deputies in the Convention, a 
discussion arose as to how it should be signed. Finally it 
was agreed that the deputies should not sign the instru- 
ment itself, but should sign an attestation that the Consti- 
tution had been agreed upon by a majority of the States. 
It was necessary then, by a provision of the Constitution 
itself, to submit it to the various States for ratification. 

In many States there was strong opposition to the Consti- 
tution. Some feared that the federal government would 
become too powerful, and might become tyrannical. Others 
hesitated to accept the Constitution because it contained 
no guarantee of personal rights such as was afterwards 
included in the first ten amendments. The first State 
to accept the Constitution was Delaware, in December. 
The Convention had adjourned in September. Then fol- 
lowed Pennsylvania, won over by the arguments of Frank- 
lin and Wilson. Like Delaware, New Jersey and Georgia 
agreed unanimously. Connecticut followed with slight 
opposition. In Massachusetts there was a bitter struggle. 
John Hancock, leader of the opposition, finally agreed, pro- 
vided certain amendments be added. These amendments 



302 BUILDING THE NATION. 



were of extreme importance in protecting individual rights 
and liberties. They were "after thoughts,*" it is true, 
but without them the Constitution would have neglected 
the welfare of private citizens. A promise was given, and 
by a very small majority the Constitution Avas accepted. 

Maryland followed cheerfully. South Carolina followed, 
but asked for amendments similar to those of Massachusetts. 
Thus eight States had been secured. The Constitution re- 
quired nine before it could go into effect. It was now June, 
1788, and the opposition to the Constitution had become or- 
ganized. Finally in Virginia Washington, Madison, Ran- 
dolph, and Marshall won against Patrick Henry and several 
other brilliant leaders. The Massachusetts vote had been 
187 to 168 ; the Virginia vote was 186 to 167. Meantime, 
by a few days, New Hampshire had the distinction of becom- 
ing the ninth and decisive State to accept the Constitution. 

By far the most bitter struggle was in New York. Ham- 
ilton finally won by a vote of 30 to 27 in July. North Car- 
olina soon followed ; and Rhode Island, which, fearing that 
a strong central government would deprive her of the cus- 
toms revenue of Newport, then the greatest trading-port in 
America, and fearing also that the government would be 
not aristocratic but democratic, had sent no delegates to the 
Convention, did not vote to ratify until June, 1790. Mean- 
time, Congress had assembled, and agreed to begin to carry on 
a national government under the Constitution, March, 1789. 

The Massachusetts amendments, ten in number, were 
adopted without opposition in 1791. They are similar in 
nature to the English Declaration and Bill of Rights, 
among the most important documents in the " English 
Constitution." 



SIGNATURES TO THE CONSTITUTION. 



303 




304 BUILDING THE NATION. 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Who was President of the Constitutional Convention ? 

2. Who was the greatest figure in the Convention ? 

3. Name other prominent men. 

4. Describe and explain the Federal Government as desired by the 
Convention. 

5. Explain what is meant by the statement that " The United States 
is the only country in the world in which the Judiciary is supreme." 

6. What were the first States to ratify the Convention ? 

7. How was the opposition of Massachusetts and other States over- 
come ? 

8. Discuss the Amendments. 

QUESTIONS UPON THE CONSTITUTION. 

(See Appendix.) 

1. Are the States or the People credited with ordaining the Constitu- 
tion ? For what reasons was the Constitution established ? 

2. What is the name of the national legislature ? Of what is it com- 
posed ? 

3. In which House do revenue bills originate ? Which House repre- 
sents the States ? Which the People ? 

4. What are the powers of the Congress ? 

5. What are the provisions as to interstate trade ? 

6. What are the powers denied to the States ? 

7. What is the title of the nation's chief executive ? 

8. How is he elected ? 

9. What are the powers of the chief executive ? 

10. Describe the organization of the Federal Courts. 

11. What are the provisions for making each State equal with every 
other ? 

12. Discuss slavery and the slave-trade in the Constitution. 

13. What is the provision for insuring States against invasion and 
domestic violence ? 

14. Discuss freedom of religion, of speech, of the press, and of as- 
sembly, in the first amendment. 

15. Discuss the right of privacy in one's own home as seen in the 
fourth amendment. 

16. Discuss the rights of a person accused of crime, as in the fifth and 
sixth amendments, and in Article I. , § 9. 

17. What is the constitutional law as to trial by jury ? 



THE CONSTITUTION. 305 



18. Discuss the reserved powers of the States. (Amendment Article 
X. is considered the most important single item of the Constitution.) 

Note. The Constitution should be read a half page at a time, and dis- 
cussed in the light of history. Many of its truths have been won at the 
cost of wars and martyrdoms. It is a compendium of the world's political 
wisdom reduced to principles of practical service. It cannot be fully ap- 
preciated by many boys and girls, but it can be understood; and carried in 
memory will years later bear abundant fruit. Notice that for the great 
system of parties and nominating conventions the Constitution makes no 
provision. When it was drawn, no one dreamed that the electors of the 
President would be pledged to certain candidates before their election. It 
is one of the useless yet fascinating questions of history whether the Con- 
stitution could have been so framed that the War of Secession would never 
have taken place. We must remember that in 1787 nearly every one ex- 
pected slavery to die out. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

See References, Chap. IV., p. 249. 

Meigs's Growth of Constitution. 

Consult the Lives of the various persons named in the §§1 and 4. 

Consult also their biographies in the standard encyclopedias. 

Hart's Contemporaries : Vol. III., pp. 198-254. 

Caldwell's American History (Source Extracts), pp. 72-145. 

Thorpe's History of the American People, pp. 254-289. 

Goldwin Smith's Political History of the United States, pp. 121-129. 

Fiske's Civil Government. 

Strong and Stanford's Government in State and Nation. . 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS. 

1. The Dispute between the Large and the Small States. 

2. The Slavery Issue in the Constitutional Convention. 

GREAT DATES. 

1492. Columbus discovers America. 

1607. Virginia is settled. 

1682. Pennsylvania is settled. 

1733. Georgia is settled. 

1775. The War of Independence begins. 

1787. The Constitutional Convention meets. 



306 



A SELF-GOVERNED PEOPLE. 




The Statue of Liberty, by the French Sculptor, Bartholdi. 

Presented by the People of France to America. 

Erected in I 886 upon Bedloe's Island in New York Harbor. 

Height of Statue, 151 ft. Height of Torch above Base of Pedestal, 305£ ft. 



PAET FOUR. 

POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION, 



CHAPTER I. 

BEFORE THE TIME OF PARTY POLITICS. 

George Washington, 1789-1797. 

§ 1. The First President was Elected, and Governed Without 

Opposition. 

General George Washington was elected the first 
President of the United States. No other candidate was 
considered for that great office. 
He was the representative man 
of the new nation, and his Ad- 
ministration successfully devel- 
oped a period of civil peace and 
commercial prosperity in marked 
contrast with the long years of 
distrust and struggle that had 
preceded it. As an individual 
man the President stood for the 
continuance of the old order 
rather than for the forces which 
were to make the nation as great 
in commerce and industry as it 
had already proven itself to 
he in war and in politics. He controlled the national gov- 
ernment as has no later President in the history of the 

307 




Martha Washington, 

Born, 1732 ; died, I 802. 

Wife of George Washington. 



308 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION, 



9\ 



A SONATA, |f 

Sung by a Number of young Girls, drefTed in white and decked i* 

with. Wreaths and Chaplets of Flowers, holding Bafkets of- Flow-- [$ 

ers in their Hands, as General Wafhington pafTcd under the Tri- j 1 

umphal-Arch raifed on the Bridge at Trenton, April 21, 1789. m', 

i* 

WELCOME, mighty Chief ! once more, 
Welcome to this grateful Shore 
Now no mercenary Foe 
Aims again the fatal Blow — 
Aims at thee the fatal Blow. 

Virgins fair, and Matrons grave, 
Thofe thy conquering Arms did fave. 
Build for thee triumphal Bowers. 
I Strew, ye Fair, his Way with Flowers — r* i 

Strew your Hero's Way with Flowers. 



As they fung thefe Lines they ftrewed the Flowers before .the General who halted 
until the Sonata was finished. 

11 

%p*| The General "being prefented with a Copy of the Sonata, waspleafed to addrefs |Q 
&} the following Card to the Ladies... i'& 



To the Ladies of Trenton, who were aflembled on the twenty-firfl 
Day of April 1789, at the Triumphal Arch erected by them on 
the Bridge, which extends acrofs the AfTanpinck Creek. 



Trenton, April 21, 1789. 
agfl r. ■■jii S^==^ggi ; aa==g3W8a Qwfl g w 



If 



GENERAL WASHINGTON cannot leave this Place without exprefling 
his Acknowledgments to the Matrons and Young Ladies, who received 

5 I him in fo novel and grateful a Manner at the Triumphal Arch in Trenton, j£j 

gt for the exquifite Senfations he experienced in that affecTing Moment. — The ^Ji 

afloniflung Contraft between his former and aclual Situation at the fame ': [ 

Spot — the elegant Tafte with which it was adorned for the prefent Occafi- -f 

i on — and the innocent Appearance of the White-Robed Choir who met him with | ,L 

j£ * the gratulatory Song — have made fuch an Impreflion on his Remembrance, as, 1 1[ 

*j? \ he allures them, will never be effaced. |£» 



! 



HAMILTON AND JEFFERSON. 309 



nation, for as a successful general of the Revolutionary 
War, and political organizer throughout the critical period 
of Constitution-making, he was the idol of the people. 

§ 2. Two Leaders Appeared, Alexander Hamilton and 
Thomas Jefferson. 

There were no political parties in the United States in 
1789, nor did any one ever dream how important a place 
political partisanship was to take later in the working out 
in America of the political ideal of representative democ- 
racy. There were, however, several factions. Of these the 
chief were the same two that were so active in the critical 
period. One faction desired to build up a strong govern- 
ment and a great nation in the New World. This was the 
party of the commercial men of the time, and was strong in 
the cities and towns, of which the largest had scarcely a 
hundred thousand people. The other faction sought to 
protect the State governments as the means of protecting 
the individual citizen in his rights, privileges, and liberties. 
These two opposing ideas have been the bases of the two 
great political parties ever since. This faction was espec- 
ially strong in the country districts. Both factions were 
represented in Washington's Cabinet, the first by Alexander 
Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, and the second by 
Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State. 

Alexander Hamilton did not believe in altogether trust- 
ing the people to govern themselves. Indeed, most of the 
highly educated men of the time distrusted the common 
people, and believed that as they did not often seem to 
prosper in their personal affairs, so their collective judg- 
ment on affairs of government must be poor. In this 
administration Hamilton was closer to the President than 



310 



POLITICAL PHOGBESS OF THE NATION. 



was any other man, and to him Washington's signal success 
as the lirst President was largely due. 

§ 3. Washington Organized Five Executive Departments. 

The first necessity of the Administration was to raise 
funds. This the President and Congress did by levying 
a tariff duty upon imports. It was a heavy tariff, — quite 
as heavy as that against which the people had fought in the 
War of Independence. Besides, the American commerce 
at sea was greatly injured by England's prohibition of trade 
with the West Indies. But the merchants and the people 
accepted the new tariff resolutely. Five departments were 




New York City Hall, Wall St., Head of Broad St. Built in 1700. Here met: 

The Provincial Assembly; The Supreme Court: The City Council. Here 

George Washington was inaugurated first President, 1789. 

established, and a Cabinet was formed to advise the Presi- 
dent, which included heads of the departments of State, 
Treasury, War, and Justice. The Postmaster-General was 
not made a member of the Cabinet. Congress and the Ad- 
ministration together undertook the task of organizing a 
government in the Executive and Judicial Departments in 
accordance with the provisions of the new Constitution. 



PAYING THE WAR DEBTS. 311 



§ 4. Congress Decided to Pay the War Debts in Full, and 
to Locate the Capital in the Southern States. 

By far the most important undertakings of the Adminis- 
tration were the settlement of the national debt and the 
securing of an adequate revenue. The United States, as 
the political successor of the Confederation of independent 
States, owed about 854,000,000, of which 111,000,000 was 
owed in Europe, chiefly in France. The rest was owed to 
American citizens who had bought bonds issued by the 
Confederation. This was a vast sum to a nation of 4,000,- 
000 people, whose business had not yet revived from the 
depression due to the long war, and to the longer after- 
period of distrust and misery. Most of the citizens were 
agreed that the foreign debt should be paid in full, but 
most also were opposed to paying the domestic debt in full, 
since the bonds of the Confederation had cost their holders 
very much less than their par value. The Administration 
wished to refund this debt at par on the ground that the 
nation must begin honestly so as to have good credit. 
Both the foreign and the domestic debts of the Nation were 
finally paid in full. 

The different States of the United States also owed 
great sums of money, largely spent in prosecuting the War 
of Independence. The Administration, led by Hamilton, 
was in favor of the nation's paying the debts of the States. 
There was opposition to this on the additional ground that 
the Northern States were much more heavily in debt than 
the Southern. Some of the States owed money to the 
United States. While this controversy was at its height, 
another arose, also between the North and South, as to the 
location of the national Capital. Both controversies were 



312 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



settled by a method that has since come to be called " log 
rolling." Some Northern members of Congress voted to 
place the Capital upon the Potomac River in the South in 
return for Southern votes to direct the United States to 
assume certain debts of the separate States irrespective of 
their debts to the United States. 

§ 5. The Slave Question was Discussed. 
Early in Washington's Administration two questions 
arose that were not to be settled finally until seventy years 
had passed. The first of these was whether the National 
Government was to be supreme over the State Govern- 
ments, or subordinate to them. The second related to the 
rights of slave-traders and of slave-holders. It came up in 
several forms : one was a proposal to levy a duty upon all 
Negroes imported, another was to give the slaves certain 
rights as citizens, and another was to permit any one who 
claimed a slave wherever found to take possession of him. 
On each of these issues the slave-holders were successful. 
Early in the Administration, Vermont, a free State, and 
Kentucky, a slave State, were admitted into the Union. 
Vermont had seceded from New York during the War of 
Independence. 

§ 6. The Supporters of Jefferson Criticised the Followers of 

Hamilton for Benefiting Themselves Through the 

Financial Policy of the Government. 

Two more of Hamilton's measures contributed to the 
strength of government, — the levying of an internal reve- 
nue tax on whisky, and the establishment of a national bank. 

While Hamilton, the Federalist, was strong in the Ad- 
ministration, Jefferson, the Republican, was growing in 
strength among the people. He and his followers charged 



AVOID A FOREIGN WAR. 



313 



the leaders of the Federalists with making money out of 
the Government, by the rise in value of the bonds that rep- 
resented the National debt ; and without warrant cast slurs 
upon even Washington himself, who was at the personal 
disadvantage of being known as one of the richest men in 
the United States. 



§ 7. Washington Issued a Proclamation of Neutrality. 

In 1793, the republic of France, which as a monarchy 
had been so helpful to the United States during the Revo- 
lutionary War, declared war upon England. There existed 




ident Washington's Coach. 



between the United States and France a treaty of alliance 
which pledged each nation to defend the territorial posses- 
sions of the other. Jefferson believed that the treaty was 
still in force, though the form of government in France 



314 



POLITICAL PEOGKESS OF THE NATION. 



had changed. Hamilton took the contrary view. Following 
his advice, Washington, who was very anxious to keep 
the United States free from international complications, 
issued a proclamation of neutrality, warning American 

citizens not to take sides with 
either party. The position of the 
Administration was complicated 
by the presence in the United 
States of an agent of France 
known as " Citizen Genet," who 
was received with great popular 
applause. Fortunately for the 
Administration, new rulers came 
into control in France who were 
unfriendly to Genet, and he was 
recalled. 

At this critical time Washing- 
ton was again unanimously elected 
President, a convincing evidence of the popular apprecia- 
tion, not only of his great services in the past, but of his 
admirable judgment in the management of national affairs. 




John Jay Born, I 745 J died, 1829. 
Diplomat; Chief Justice U.S. Su 
preme Court J Governor, New York. 



§ 8. Treaties were Made with England and Spain. 

Shortly after Washington's re-election, there arose special 
difficulties with England beside those caused by the con- 
tinuing war between England and France. The citizens 
of the new nation owed money to English citizens, which 
they did not pay ; and England in retaliation refused to 
surrender any military posts in the Northwest, and also 
refused to pay for slaves taken away by the army and navy 
at the time of the evacuation of Charleston and New York. 



FOREIGN TREATIES. 



315 



Further, England put in force the " International Rule of 
War of 1756," by which the citizens of a neutral country 
could not trade with the citizens of a country at war with 
another country except at their own peril. Lastly, England 
insisted on her right to examine American trading vessels, 
and remove from them any British citizens. The general 
sentiment of the nation at this period was for war. 

To avoid such a catastrophe, Washington sent John Jay to 
England to negotiate a new treaty. Its terms were by no 
means satisfactory to the American public. Only with 
great difficulty did the Administration secure the ratifica- 
tion of this treaty, which was decidedly more favorable to 
England than to the United States. It postponed to the 
future the settle uient of the most important questions, but 
provided that American vessels above seventy tons' burden 
should not trade in the West Indies, and that the United 
States should not export molasses, 
sugar, cocoa, coffee, and cotton to 
any part of the world. Viewed in 
the light of later history, the good 
point of Jay's treaty was that it 
postponed the second war with 
Great Britain for twenty years. 
Equal statesmanship in 1812 might 
have postponed it for ever. 

The new nation had difficulty 
as to its international rela- 
tions, not only with France and Sarah Livingstor1| wife of Joh n Jay . 
England, but also with Spain, Mother of a famous line 

which had deprived us of the right of a landing-place 

I within Spanish territory upon the Mississippi River. The 




316 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



landing-place was needed for the purpose of transferring 
merchandise from river-going craft to sea-going vessels. A 
favorable treaty was negotiated, but it was several years 
before the Spanish officers permitted the establishment of 
such a post. Just before the close of Washington's second 
term, new troubles arose with France over the unwarranted 
capture of vessels by French citizens. 

§ 9. The Indians in the Northwest Territory Resented 
the Progress of White Settlements. 

A considerable part of Washington's term was taken up 
with Indian wars. The Ordinance of 1787 turned over 
to white settlement the Northwest territory, almost with- 
out consulting the Indians in 1790. The Miamis of Ohio 
arose, and overwhelmed the army sent against them. An- 
thony Wayne, of Revolutionary fame, distinguished himself 
in these campaigns. In Washington's messages to Con- 
gress much space was devoted to the Indian troubles, which 
only a century ago were constant and serious. 

§10. Washington Issued a "Fare-well Address." 
Washington, who had now reached the age of sixty-five, 
was not an old man so much in years as in experience and 
in the wear and tear of life. He refused a third term, and 
retired in 1797, issuing a "farewell address" that is one 
of the most valuable documents of our public history. 

Washington throughout his career carried on an immense 
correspondence. His British enemies said of him that he 
wrote letters twenty-four hours in the day. What fine let- 
ters they were ! And in what beautiful penmanship ! No 
other man of his age and generation knew so well the senti- 
ments of so many citizens in various parts of the United States 



THE "FAREWELL ADDRESS." 317 



as did he who was characterized by Madison, as " First in 
war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." 

George Washington in the Presidency proved himself as 
great as in the command of armies. As a general, he was 
greater in organization and in the strategy of campaigns than 
in the tactics of battle. He displayed vast talents in the 
management of affairs, in peace and in war. He was as 
good a business man in private as in public affairs. Of 
great stature of body, and singular dignity and poise of 
manner, his presence attracted the attention, and his speech 
and conduct won the confidence, of men of all classes and 
conditions. They recognized in his high bearing that moral 
bravery which he displayed alike on battlefields and in 
councils of state. 

Whatever may be true of the relative greatness of other 
Americans compared with other heroes of history, of Wash- 
ington and Lincoln it is true that they stand without 
superiors in their service to humanity. 

John Adams, 1797-1801. 

§ 11. Two Parties were Begun. 
John Adams was not the leader of the Federalist or 
National Party, which had grown out of the discussions and 
factions of Washington's Administration, but he was the 
only person whom the Federalists could elect, since Hamil- 
ton and Jay, the real leaders, were personally very un- 
popular among the people. Jefferson, of the opposing 
Anti-Federalist or States' Rights party, received only three 
votes less than Adams in a total count of 139 votes in the 
Electoral College. Consequently Adams, unlike Washington, 
began his Administration with a seriously divided people. 



818 



POLITICAL PBOGKESS OF THE NATION. 



§ 12. Trouble with France Resulted in Trouble at Home. 
Owing to diplomatic troubles between France and the 
United States, it was necessary to appoint a special com- 
mission to that country. Many 
new vessels were added to the 
navy as a means of protecting 
national honor abroad. At home 
the Alien and Sedition Acts of 
1798 were passed by Congress. 
These made it much more diffi- 
cult for foreign-born men to be 
naturalized as American citizens, 
and authorized the President to 
exclude and exile aliens accord- 
ing to his judgment. The Sedi- 
tion Act w r as scarcely constitu- 
tional, since it was directed 
against free speech, as we un- 
derstand it. These Acts were 
followed by the Virginia and 
Kentucky Resolutions, which an- 
nounced the great doctrine of State sovereignty and the 
right of secession. They were the product of the philoso- 
phy of Thomas Jefferson, who himself wrote a considerable 
part of them. 

The Alien and Sedition Acts were extremely unpopular, 
partly because they were enforced against individuals of 
the States' Rights party, which was growing in power and 
in number. In 1800 a treaty with France effected a tem- 
porary peace settlement, and by removing the international 
causes of these Acts led to domestic tranquillity. 




John Adams. 

Born, I 735 ; died, I 826. 

President; Diplomat. 

Adams and Jefferson both died on 

July 4, I 826. 



SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 



319 



§ 13. Adams was a Failure as a Politician. 

During his Administration Adams had successfully pre- 
vented our nation from engaging 
in war with France. Neverthe- 
less, he had been unable person- 
ally to adjust himself to the new 
discordant forces at work in the 
nation. He had made enemies 
among the Federalists themselves 
by his policy. Hamilton especially 
disliked him and opposed his 
re-election. Adams was a repre- 
sentative of the past, and of 
its great achievements in war 
and in politics, rather than of the 
future, whose economic develop- 
ments and territorial expansion were so soon to astonish the 
whole world. 




Abigail Smith, 

Wife of John Adams. 

Mother of a famous line. 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Who was the first President of the United States ? Was there 
opposition to his election ? Give reasons for answer. 

2. What two factions were developed in the government ? Who 
were their leaders ? 

3. At this time what did most educated men think of the ability of 
the common people to rule themselves ? 

4. How many executive departments of government were there ? 
Name them. 

5. What was done to settle the National debt ? 

6. What was done with regard to the debts of the separate States ? 

7. How was the question of a National Capital settled ? 

8. What Negro-slave questions arose in Congress ? 

9. Discuss the Republican criticisms of Hamilton's policy. 

10. With what foreign nation did we narrowly escape war ? 

11. Discuss our international difficulties with England. What treaty 
was made ? 



320 POLITICAL PROGRESS OP THE NATION. 



12. What was the cause of our dispute with Spain ? 

13. Were there any difficulties with the Indians ? 

14. What opinion did Madison express regarding Washington ? Give 
reasons for approving it. 

15. Who was the second President of our nation ? Was he unani- 
mously elected ? 

16. What were the "Alien and Sedition Acts"? Why were they 
passed ? 

17. What were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions ? 

18. Was Adams a successful President ? 

19. Prom what States did Washington and Adams come ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries: Vol. III., pp. 255-343: Public Credit, Congress, 
Tariff, The National Capital, The National Bank, Office-seeking Parties, 
Hamilton and Jefferson, Politics, The Prench Revolution, Citizen 
Genet, Jay's Treaty, Adams, XYZ Correspondence. 

Hart's Source Book, pp. 181-183 : Washington, pp. 188-190, Troubles of 
the Sea-trade, pp. 191-194, XYZ Correspondence. 

Hart's Source Headers : No. 3, John Hancock; Washington at Mount 
Vernon, 1788; etc. 

Hart's Formation of the Union : Chapters VII.-VIIL 

McMaster's History of the People of the United States: Vol. L, pp. 525- 
604; Vol. II., 89-557. 

Schouler's History of the United States: Vol. I., pp. 74-501. 

Consult lives of Alexander Hamilton by Morse, by Lodge, and by Sum- 
ner; also of John Adams by Morse; of James Madison by Hunt 
and by Morse ; of Thomas Jefferson by Morse; of John Jay by 
Pellew ; and of Washington by Wilson, by Sparks, and by Lodge. 

Gibbs's Administration of Washington and Adams. 

Abigail Adams's Letters. 

Old South Leaflets: Nos. 4 (Washington's Parewell Address), 10, 12, 15, 
65, 76, 99, 103. 

Wendell's Literary History of America: Chap. VIII. 

Learned's History for Ready Reference ; and the standard encyclopedias. 
Note A. The period, 1789-1801, is often called the Federalist Period, 

because during it the Federalists who believed and proclaimed their belief 

in a strong central government were in power. In this period, which 

was very picturesque in many respects, such American women as Martha 

Washington, the first "lady of the land," Abigail Adams, the brilliant 



THE FEDERALIST PERIOD. 321 



wife of the aristocratic President, and Sarah Jay, of an old New York 
family, the Livingstons, exercised an influence in social affairs, and indeed 
in political affairs, greater than has been possible to women in later and 
more democratic times. 

Note B. An extremely interesting and instructive incident occurred 
early in Washington's Administration. The new President, who correctly 
believed that the new nation needed the prestige of power handsomely 
manifested in social affairs, made a tour of the country. In Boston, 
Governor John Hancock of Massachusetts raised the question of States' 
Rights and the Nation's superiority by inviting the President to call upon 
him. After considerable elegant correspondence, the Governor called 
upon the President. Upon the issue of this apparent trivial matter of 
formal social etiquette turned the question of official precedence of Presi- 
dent and Governors, of Nation and States. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR INQUIRY. 

1. The XYZ Correspondence. 

2. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 

3. Citizen Genet. 

4. The French Revolution. 

5. Comparison of Edmund Burke's Position regarding the American 
Revolution and his Position regarding the French Revolution. 

6. The Adams Family. 

7. Martha Washington. 

8. Hamilton's Distrust of the Common People. 

9. Impressment of Sailors. 

10. Washington's " Farewell Address." 

11. The Indians of the Ohio Valley. 

12. The Career of "Mad Anthony Wayne." 

13. Jefferson's Political Philosophy : especially his Early Views of 
the Wisdom of Trusting the Masses. 

14. Jefferson's Influence in Separating Church and State in Virginia. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1776. Declaration of Independence. 

1789. Inauguration of George Washington as first President. 

1789-97. Washington's Administrations. 

1797-1801. John Adams's Administration. 

1800-01. Fall of the Federalists. 



322 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



CHAPTER II. 



WHEN VIRGINIA'S SCHOLARS WERE PRESIDENTS. 

Thomas Jefferson, 1801-1809. 

§ 1. Three Successive Presidents Came from Virginia. 

George Washington of Virginia was the always suc- 
cessful man of affairs. He 
had been succeeded by 
John Adams of Massa- 
chusetts, a scholar, 
i statesman, a di- 
plomatist, but 
no politician. 
After these 
two Presidents 
came three 
Virginians, all 
scholars, a 1 1 
statesmen, all 
good politi- 
cians, and 
close personal 
friends throughout 
life. These first five 
Presidents of the United 
States were all famous 
men of the Revolution. 
Bv far the most influ- 




Thomas Jefferson. 

Born, I 743 ; died, i 826. 

President: Governor Virginia: Diplomat 



ential of them upon all 
later political thought in American history, was Thomas 



A SUCCESSFUL ADMINISTRATION. 323 



Jefferson, a man of wealth and social position, a slave 
holder and a philosopher, whose scholarship was broad, 
but whose activities were practical. In his lifetime Vir- 
ginia was the foremost State in the Union. 

Thomas Jefferson, who on the twenty-fifth ballot in the 
Electoral College succeeded in defeating Adams and 
Pinckney by a plurality, and whose first election was carried 
over into Congress as directed by the Constitution, repre- 
sented new times of party division in America. He had 
been prominent as a political philosopher as long ago as in 
the Revolutionary War, but his singular openness of mind 
had kept him alive to the progress of the nation. 

§ 2. The Administration -was Successful Financially. 

Jefferson began by reorganizing the government offices, 
especially by changing the office-holders. His Administra- 
tion inherited a debt of 183,000,000, which was 16,000,000 
more than that of Washington's Administration. The in- 
crease was due to the extraordinary expense of conducting 
the Indian wars, and to diplomatic and other troubles with 
France. Meantime the income of the government had grown 
from three and a half million annually to ten and a half mil- 
lion, a record due largely to Hamilton's wise financial meas- 
ures in earlier years. It was the large national debt that led 
Jefferson to his serious error of discouraging the merchant 
marine, by retiring from service eighteen out of twenty-five 
war-vessels in the interest of public economy. His Admin- 
istration was extremely successful financially, however, for 
it reduced the national debt by half, though paying for the 
Louisiana Purchase, and for the naval wars against the 
piratical Barbary powers. His Secretary of the Treasury, 



324 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



Albert Gallatin, a native of Switzerland, was as able a 
financier as Hamilton, also foreign-born, had been. This 
good beginning was exceedingly fortunate for the young 
nation, whose credit became well established by their suc- 
cessful management. 

§ 3. The Purchase of Louisiana Made the Administration 
Popular. 

In the effect upon the history of this country the pur- 
chase of the Louisiana territory, in 1803, was the most 
important event in our history since the Declaration of 
Independence. In both of these great events Thomas 
Jefferson played a part greater than that of any other man. 
Spain had held the region since 1763 until France secured 
it in 1800 by a promised exchange of Italian territory. 

France shut the people of the Mississippi valley from access 
to the Gulf. This angered the entire American nation. 
Fortunately for us Napoleon needed money, and the thrifty 
Jefferson, willing against his Constitutional theories to con- 
strue his authority as President very freely, authorized our 
Minister R. R. Livingston, to buy the region for $15,000,000, 
less several millions owed by France to some of o*ur citizens. 
After the purchase Jefferson's re-election became absolutely 
certain, and was secured almost without opposition. 

§ 4. Alexander Hamilton was Killed in a Duel, and Aaron 
Burr Tried to Found a "Western Empire. 

Jefferson's second term was dramatic in the extreme. It 

began with the conspiracy and trial of Aaron Burr, the 

Vice-President of Jefferson's first term. In 1804 Burr 

challenged Alexander Hamilton to a duel, and killed him. 

This duel was the last of importance ever fought in the 



THE "AFFAIR OF THE CHESAPEAKE." 



325 




The 



North, for its result aroused the indignation of all Northern 
people. It also made Burr a social outcast. He decided to 
try to found a new nation, either 
Republic or Empire, somewhere 
west of the Appalachians. After 
many adventures Burr w T as cap- 
tured, and brought to trial for 
treason ; but he was not convicted. 

§ 5. England's War Against Napo- 
leon, the Master of the Conti- 
nent of Europe, Involved Our 
Nation. 

Meantime the great nations then 
at war, France and England, con- 
tinued their attacks upon our 
merchant marine. "Decrees" and 
"Orders in Council," making it 
more and more difficult for vessels to engage in trade, fol- 
lowed in rapid succession. The ports of France were closed 
by British Orders, and the ports of the Empire of Great 
Britain in all parts of the world, and also the ports of 
the Continent of Europe, were closed by French Decrees. 

A bitter discussion arose over the question whether the 
British had the right to decide that a sailor on an American 
ship was or was not an American citizen. The British 
claimed the right of search, and denied the right of the 
United States to naturalize foreign-born men. The United 
States denied the right of any foreign nation to stop an 
American vessel anywhere. Naturalization as American 
citizens had indeed become wholesale. Entire crews at 
times deserted from the British naval service. Affairs came 



Alexander Hamilton. 
Born, 1757 ; died, I 804. 
Statesman : Author (chief) of 

Federalist." The first soldier upon 
the British works at Yorktown. 



326 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



to a crisis when on June 27, 1807, the British ship Leopard 
attacked upon our own Atlantic coast without warning the 
American frigate Chesapeake, and took away three Ameri- 
cans, two of whom were Negroes, and one British citizen. 
This blood-stained international outrage led to violent dis- 
cussion in the United States, and was followed by Jeffer- 
son's proclamation forbidding British war-vessels to visit 
American harbors. This favored the French, and pleased 
Jefferson's party while it greatly displeased the Federalists. 

§ 6. In the Midst of the Embargo Act Troubles Jefferson's 
Administration Came to an End. 

In December, 1807, the first Embargo Act was passed, for- 
bidding American vessels to leave American ports for foreign 
lands. This led to serious international complications. 
Napoleon argued that, since American vessels could not 
legally sail the seas, they were liable to confiscation by 
France without any recourse by their owners in the courts. 
Commerce between America and Great Britain practically 
ceased. The tobacco planters of Virginia suffered together 
with the New England ship-owners. They called the Act 
" O-grab-me." In the midst of these troubles Jefferson's 
second term came to an end. Like Washington, he de- 
clined a third term and established an invaluable precedent. 
Jefferson was a philosopher, working into politics his 
dreams of a wise and righteous social state, and centered 
upon himself the affections of many and the hatred of a few, 
because of his far-reaching plans and activities. He rep- 
resented the new American forces that were seeking equality 
and personal liberty for all. He saw public affairs from the 
point of view of the individual citizen. He was not so 
much a State's-rights-man as a man's-rights-man. 



THE HARTFOKD CONVENTION. 



82' 




James Madison, 1809-1817. 

§ 7. Difficulties with England and France Continued. 
James Madison of Virginia succeeded Thomas Jefferson, 

whose personal friend and political supporter and adviser he 

had been since the earliest days of 

the Revolution. Madison's first 

difficulties were with the constant 

international troubles. A more 

liberal Embargo Act was passed, 

which permitted American vessels 

to trade with other nations than 

France and Great Britain. Affairs 

between the United States and 

Great Britain were brought to a 

crisis by several causes. The In- 
dian agitator Tecumseh, who had 

been defeated by General Harrison 

on Tippecanoe River, 1810, had 

joined the British; and the settlers 
beyond the Appalachians began to 
talk of a war of conquest against 
Canada. Impressment of seamen 
still continued. Further, the Brit- 
ish ministry was offensively pat- 
ronizing in its attitude toward 
the United States Government. 
§ 8. War with England Followed. 
Three new men, Henry Clay, 
John C. Calhoun, and Daniel 

Dolly Payne, Wife of James Madison Webster, Came llltO CongreSS, diS- 

Wh ° he t, d «r;X Adm ' n,s - P laci "S ^ere the last of the 



James Madison. 

Born, 175 1 ; died, I 836. 

President : Author. 




328 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



Revolutionary leaders. Clay was for war. When this was 
declared in 1812, it was very unpopular in the North. 
The naval victories, however, caused much enthusiasm. 
The privateers made great fortunes, capturing twenty-five 
hundred British vessels. Great Britain was finally forced 
by European difficulties to agree to a treaty before the war 
was actually finished. The treaty did not even mention the 
important questions that were in issue between the parties, 
but the United States later secured everything desired. 
§ 9. The War Led to the Hartford Convention. 
As the Revolutionary period had brought forward great 
leaders, so the War of 1812 made several men prominent. 
Jackson's great victory at New Orleans, which occurred after 
the war was theoretically over, 1815, increased the power of 
the States' rights party, and made him a popular hero. 
During the war, the people of Massachusetts had been 
opposed to it, though they supported it with men and arms 
on land and with privateers on the sea, even more generously 
than any Southerners. This fact led to sectional bitter- 
ness, which resulted in the famous Hartford Convention, 
December, 1814, to January, 1815. The resolutions of the 
Convention asserted the doctrine of States' rights, afterward 
advanced only by the South. War increased the national 
debt from less than $15,000,000 at the end of Jefferson's 
Administration to $127,000,000. -Thirty thousand lives 
had been lost, and nothing important directly gained. 

§ 10. The Overthrow of Napoleon in Europe Changed for the 
Better Our Domestic Affairs. 

The conclusion at this time of the great Napoleonic wars 
by the defeat and overthrow of Napoleon in 1815 at Water- 
loo assisted in the rapid transformation of the world's 



NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN BOUNDARIES. 



329 



economic conditions. It became necessary for the United 
States to protect its manufactures from British competition. 
Manufacturing had grown wonderfully, especially in the 
line of cotton, and the Tariff Act of 1816 was the logical 
outcome. Strangely enough, in view of later history, Daniel 
Webster opposed protection as against the true interests 
of New England, and Calhoun and Jefferson advocated it. 

James Monroe, 1817-1825. 

§ 11. The First Term of Monroe's Administration was Quiet. 

The last of the Presidents of Revolutionary fame was 
James Monroe of Virginia, who had studied law with Jeffer- 
son, and had always been his staunch supporter. Monroe 
was a quiet gentleman, of rather less ability than Madison, but 
otherwise much like him. In the first term of his Adminis- 
tration, very little of importance 
occurred; and he was re-elected 
President with but one vote against 
him, and that vote was cast be- 
cause an elector was determined 
that Washington should be the 
only man unanimously elected. 

§ 12. Our Northern Boundary -was 
Fixed, and We Gained Florida in 
the South. 




In foreign affairs, the northern 
boundary of our country was estab- 
lished by treaty from the Lake of 
the Woods to the Rocky Moun- 
tains; and it was agreed, 1818, that Great Britain and the 
United States should occupy Oregon jointly for ten years. 



James Monroe. 

Born, 1758; died, I 83 I . 

President : Diplomat : Governor, 

Virginia. 



330 POLITICAL PKOOKESS of the nation. 

It had become evident that Spanish Florida was a harbor 
of refuge to fugitive slaves and fugitive criminals together 
with marauding Indians. In 1819, as a result of an incur- 
sion by General Jackson into her territory the year before, 
Spain ceded it to the United States together with the south- 
ern parts of Alabama and Georgia, and the United States 
in return agreed to abandon Texas. This cession cost our 
government five million dollars, to be paid to American 
citizens in settlement of their claims against Spain. 

§ 13. The Monroe Doctrine -was Announced. 

The event of Monroe's Administration that was destined 
later to be called the most important feature in the develop- 
ment of the United States in international affairs, was the 
publication of the Monroe Doctrine. After the victory of 
the Allied Powers over Napoleon, the kings of Europe had 
formed the Holy Alliance for the promotion of peace under 
the rule of kings, and for the restoration of all things as 
they were before the French Revolution. This Alliance in 
1823 decided to undertake the re-conquest of the former 
colonies which had successfully revolted from Spain and 
Portugal during the Napoleonic Wars. Moreover, Russia 
had obtained a foothold in Alaska. American statesmen 
feared that Spain might regain possession of South America, 
Russia might gain Oregon, and perhaps the whole Pacific 
Coast, while France and Great Britain might increase their 
}30\ver and possessions here. 

The President, urged by his Secretary of State, John 
Quincy Adams, declared : that " The American continents, 
by the free and independent condition which they have 
assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered 



'THE MOKROE DOCTRINE." 331 



as subjects for future colonization by any European powers; " 
. . . and " that we should consider any attempt on the part 
of European powers to extend their system of government 
to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace 
and safety. With the existing colonies, we shall not inter- 
fere but with the governments whose independence we have 
acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the 
purpose of oppressing them or controlling in any other 
manner their destiny, by any European power, in any other 
light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition 
toward- the United States." 

This Doctrine had its origin in the views of George Wash- 
ington, as expressed in his Neutrality Proclamation, and of 
Thomas Jefferson, whose saying, " entangling alliances with 
none," in his first inaugural, has been one of America's guid- 
ing principles. The result of its proclamation was that the 
plans of the Holy Alliance in the New World could not be 
carried out, for Great Britain announced her acceptance of 
the principles of the Monroe Doctrine, which since then has 
always been recognized as the American international policy. 

§ 14. Missouri and Maine were Admitted as States in Accord- 
ance with the Provisions of the Missouri Compromise. 

Monroe's Administration seriously confronted the slavery 
issue for the first time in our national history. There had 
been admitted into the United States, before 1820, nine 
States. In 1812 the slave State of Louisiana had been 
admitted. In 1813 Missouri, another slave State, applied 
for admission. The Northerners were particularly anxious 
that slave territory should not become too large. Mean- 
time, Maine applied for admission as a State. 



332 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



Finally it was agreed that in all the territory ceded by 
France under the name of Louisiana, and lying north of 
thirty-six degrees, thirty minutes, north latitude, except the 
State of Missouri, slavery should be forever prohibited, 
unless such limit of land was already included in the slave 
States, as it already was east of the Mississippi River. 

Such was the Missouri Compromise, involving the balan- 
cing of a new slave-labor State by a new free-labor State. 
It postponed the conflict over the existence of slavery for 
forty years. It allowed the North to grow strong, but at 
the same time intensified the division between the sections. 

§ 15. The Tariff Issue Grew in Importance. 
In 1824: a new and stronger protective tariff bill was 
passed, against the continued opposition of Webster, who 
represented the commercial interests of New England, still 
regarded as more important than its industrial interests. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Discuss our finances in the time of Jefferson. 

2. Discuss the Hamilton and Burr troubles. 

3. What was " the affair of the Chesapeake " ? 

4. Discuss the Embargo Act. 

5. What were the causes of the War with Great Britain ? 

6. What was the Hartford Convention ? 

7. What was the effect of the War upon manufacturing interests ? 

8. Who was the fifth President ? What was his relation to the War 
of Independence ? To Virginia ? To Jefferson ? 

9. What is the " Monroe Doctrine " ? 

10. Discuss " The Missouri Compromise." 

11. What was the purpose of the Tariff Act of 1824 ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. III., pp. 363—500 : Louisiana Purchase, Napo- 
leon, Oregon, Impressment, Chesapeake, Embargo, War of 1812, Inter- 
nal Improvements, Commerce, Treaty of 1819, Monroe Doctrine. 



PRESIDENTS FROM VIRGINIA. 333 



McDonald's Select Charters of United States History] Vol. II. : Louisiana 
Purchase, Burr's Conspiracy, Treaties, Missouri Compromise, Mon- 
roe's Message. (The quotation, p. 331, is condensed.) 

Consult biographies of the Presidents : e.g. Forman's Jefferson, Life and 
Writings. Hunt's Madison. Gilman's Monroe. 

Duyckinck's National Portrait Gallery : Famous men. 

Thorpe's History of American People, pp. 304-368. 

Caldwell's American History (sources). 

McMaster's History of the People of the United States, Vols. III., IV. 

Schouler's History of the United States, Vols. II., III. 

Consult Harper's Encyclopedia of United States History : Tariff Acts, 
Embargo. Also Earned' s History for Beady Reference. Also Old 
South Leaflets. Also the standard encyclopedias, — Burr, Gallatin. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS. 

1. Hamilton and Gallatin as Financiers. 
2.^TheHoly Alliance. 

3. Gallatin's Studies of Indian Life. 

4. The Conspiracy of Burr and Blennerhasset. 

5. The Effect of the War with Great Britain upon Internal Improve- 
ments, upon Manufactures, upon Immigration, upon Commerce at Sea. 

6. The States that were Admitted after the War with Great Britain, 

7. Dolly Madison, a Famous Mistress of the White House. 

8. The Virginia Presidents. 

9. End of Foreign Slave-trade : Effect upon Domestic Slave-trade. 

10. Jefferson's First Inauguration. 

11. States' Rights in Virginia, Kentucky, and New England. 

IMPORTANT DATES. 
1801-9. Jefferson is President. 
1803. Louisiana is purchased for $15,000,000 from Napoleon, ruler of France, 

1807. Aaron Burr is tried for treason but acquitted. 

1808. The foreign slave-trade is forbidden. 
1808. An Embargo Act is passed. 
1809-17. Madison is President. 

1812-15. War is waged with Great Britain. 

1815. Napoleon is overthrown by the allies at Waterloo. 

1819. We buy Florida from Spain for $5,000,000. 

1819. Our Northern boundary is fixed by treaty with Great Britain. 

1824. The Monroe Doctrine is announced. 



334 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



\ 



CHAPTER III. 

THE DEMOCRATIC WEST SEEKS CONTROL. 

John Quincy Adams, 1825-1829. 

§ 1. The Administration Suffered from Personal Enmities. 

Monroe's second Administration had often been called 
the " Era of Good Feeling." It certainly was an era of 
marvelous economic development. In the Electoral College 
Jackson received a plurality of five votes over Adams of Mass- 
achusetts and the other candi- 
dates, of whom there were many. 
The personal strife among the 
politicians had been bitter during 
this era of popular good feeling. 
In the House of Representatives, 
Adams was elected. His Ad- 
ministration suffered constantly 
from factional troubles. In this 
respect he was even more unfortu- 
nate than his father. There were 
no great issues before the country. 
In such times personal dissensions 
are common. 

The most important political 
event was the passing of the 
tariff in 1828, often called "the tariff of abominations," 
because it was satisfactory neither to the farmers of the 
West and South nor to the manufacturers of the North, 
since it raised the prices both of raw materials and of 
manufactured products. 





John Quincy Adams. 

Son of John Adams. 

Born, 1767 ; died, 1848. 

President : Diplomat : Senator from 

Massachusetts: Educator: Member 

of Congress. 



THE ELECTION OF JACKSON. 335 



§ 2. Adams Entered Congress. 
John Quincy Adams, like his father, John Adams, repre- 
sented the highest political ideals, honor, industriousness, 
and competency, but also like him was an unskilful poli- 
tician. He left the Presidency in 1829 to enter Congress 
the next year, where he continued for seventeen years, the 
one ex-President in all our country's history whose career 
after his Administration was of great political importance. 
The man who had written " The Monroe Doctrine " was 
the man who upheld in Congress the American right of 
petition in the interest of Negro freedom. 

Andrew Jackson, 1829-1837. 

§ 3. The Hero of New Orleans and the Invader of Florida, 

Andrew Jackson, Represented the Popular Demand 

for a Change at Washington. 

The election which took place in 1828 was more bitter 
than any that had preceded it. The successful candidate 
was the President, whose success first illustrated the new 
opportunities here to rise from early poverty to our highest 
political position. General Jackson of Tennessee, who four 
years before had been defeated by Adams, represented the 
various classes that hoped for a change. These classes 
included those who were opposed to the rich capitalists, and 
who were the representatives of the growing West. Adams 
actually received only one less electoral vote than in the pre- 
ceding election, but Jackson received all the rest. The 
popular vote was three times as heavy as in 1824, and Adams 
actually received 40% more votes than before. We have 
no records of the popular vote for President before 1824. 
A change of but a few thousand votes in Pennsylvania 
would have resulted in Adams's re-election. 



336 



POLITICAL PKOGRESS OF THE NATION. 



§ 4. The President was a Democrat in Practice as well as in 

Theory. 

The new President was a man of a type that had never 
been seen in the Presidential chair before. He was " a 
man of the people," and his candidacy and administration 

aroused the popular enthusiasm 
beyond any previous experience 
in American politics. Not well 
educated, he had that sheer force 
of character which is more suc- 
cessful in affairs than pure in- 
tellect. Himself a politician, he 
was associated all his life with 
politicians, and his Administra- 
tion suffered greatly at their 
hands. Jackson presented a new 
theory of Government, which 
was that the people are sov- 
ereign, and must have whatever 
they demand. 

Jackson turned out one thousand office-holders irrespec- 
tive of the value of their services, and put in his followers. 
This was a new idea. He believed that " To the victors 
belong the spoils." He believed also in "rotation in 
office " for the good of the service and to give experience 
to the citizens in public affairs. In rude though effective 
manner Jackson put into practice the democratic theories of 
Jefferson. The results of his Administration were, that 
internal improvements, advocated by Adams, ceased, that the 
great United States Bank was ruined, and that the rates of 
the protective tariff were greatly reduced. 




Andrew Jackson. 

Born, 1767 ; died, 1845. 

President : General : Justice: 

Tennessee Supreme Court : 

Senator. 



THE FAILURE OF NULLIFICATION. 



337 



§ 5. South Carolina Attempted Nullification. 

During his Administration occurred that great debate 
between Webster and Hayne, which brought to a focus the 
long controversy over the question whether the States have 
a right to secede. Southerner 
though he was, Jackson's posi- 
tion as President, as well as his 
own view of the Constitution, 
compelled him to take the liberal 
view of the Constitution ; and 
when South Carolina proclaimed, 
in a State Convention, 1832, that 
the Tariff Acts of 1828 and 1832 
were null and void, Jackson is- 
sued a proclamation denouncing 
the declaration as treason. He 
sent soldiers and naval vessels to 
Charleston, and persuaded Con- 
gress to pass the Force Bill. 
At the same time Congress passed a new tariff bill, known 
as the Compromise Tariff. Duties on imported goods were 
to be reduced gradually during the next ten years. Then 
South Carolina, in part placated; and in part not ready to 
fight the nation, promptly withdrew the Declaration. 




John C. Calhoun. 
Born, I 782 ; died, 1850. 
Senator; Vice-President. 



§ 6. The Anti-Slavery Agitation Became Prominent. 

It was in Jackson's Administration that the Anti-slavery 
agitation became noteworthy. William Lloyd Garrison, 
a Boston printer, appeared as an Abolitionist, and in news- 
papers and on the platform led the opposition to slavery on 
moral grounds. His paper, " The Liberator," demanded 



838 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



immediate abolition of slavery with compensation to the 
owners. The movement for abolition met with strong op- 
position in New England. It would not have been suc- 
cessful there as a doctrine, however, if the Southerners had 
not been far too aggressive for the welfare of their cause. 
John Quincy Adams, ex-President though he was, had 
returned to Congress as a representative from Massachu- 



THOMPSON, 

THE ABOLITIONIST. 



That infamous foreign scoundrel THOMPSON, will 
hold forth this afternoon* at the Liberator ^Office, No* 
48, Washington Street. The present is a fair opportu- 
nity for the friends of the Union to snake Thompson 
out! It will be a contest between the Abolitionists and 
the friends of the Union* A purse of $100 has been 
raised by a number of patriotic citizens to reward the 
individual who shall first lay violent hands on Thompson, 
so that he may be brought to the tar kettle before dark* 
Friends of the Union, be vigilant! 

Beston, Wednesday, 12 & clock. 



This handbill was set up, printed and distributed, in 1835, by two boys. One was George 

C. Rand, who afterwards printed "Uncle Tom's Cabin." It brought together 

a mob of 5,000 people, who seized Garrison at Thompson's office. 

setts, and was persistent in presenting petitions against 
slavery. He did this not because he was an Abolitionist, 
but because he believed in the wisdom of allowing and 
in the justice of expecting free speech in a republic of 
free men. When John C. Calhoun of South Carolina sup- 
ported the proposition not to hear these petitions, he pro- 
posed a violation of the Constitution itself. With this 



i 



THE ANTI-SLAVERY CAUSE, 



339 



error the success of the Abolitionist cause was fairly begun. 
Calhoun even proposed that Congress pass a bill prohibit- 
ing the circulating of publications 
on the slavery question through 
the mails. 

In 1837, in Illinois, Elijah P. 
Love joy, an Abolitionist, was 
murdered in his printing-house 
by a mob. This murder was fol- 
lowed by a wonderful meeting 
at Faneuil Hall, Boston, in which 
Wendell Phillips appeared for 
the first time with a great anti- 
slavery oration. By 1838 New William Lloyd Garrison _ 
England was fairly won for the Born > l805 ' died < l879 ' 

° Journalist: President Anti-slavery 

anti-slavery cause. society, 1 843-1 865. 




§ 7. Jackson Destroyed the United States Bank. 

Jackson's Administration was one of extreme interest 
and of many events. He made war against the United 
States Bank, which he believed to be a great political 
machine, and dangerous to the democracy of this country. 
In this belief he was correct. Excellent as the Bank was 
in many respects, both in ordinary commercial affairs and 
as the distributing agency of the National Government, its 
directors and officers were too zealous in promoting its 
interests to make its continuance desirable in such a nation 
as ours. 

Nor were all its business methods safe. A result of the 
destruction of the Bank was the forming of " wild-cat " 
banks all over the country. The " wild-cat " banks ended 



340 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 




by producing the worst financial panic that has ever occurred 

in the history of the country, 1837. Yet while they lasted, 

they greatly encouraged the development of the West and 

South. 

§ 8. " Remember the Alamo." 

In 1835 the Mexican State, Texas, rebelled and endeav- 
ored to secure its national independence. In 1836 Santa 

Anna, a Mex- 
ican general, 
with 4,000 
soldiers, at- 
tacked the 
Texans, num- 
bering 140, 
in a hospital, 
and killed 
every man. 
There per- 
ished the fa- 
mous David 

Crocket and James Bowie, American pioneer heroes. Within 
two months thereafter, Sam Houston had won the State its 
national freedom. The Texas cry, " Remember the Alamo," 
helped bring on the Mexican War in 1845. 

§9. "Hard Times" Began. 

In 1837 all of the United States national debt had been 
paid, and the annual income exceeded expenditures by 
thirty-five millions of dollars. Commerce and industry 
were actively progressing. Yet the disturbance of the 
nation's financial affairs was so serious as to bring about 
general business depression. 




Remember the Alamo.' 



A VICTIM OF THE "SPOILS SYSTEM. 



341 



Martin Van Buren, 1837-1841. 

§ 10. Van Buren was too Skilful a Politician to be Popular. 

" Jackson's reign," as his Administration has been styled, 
was not entirely over even after 
the election of the next Presi- 
dent, for his friend Martin Van 
Bnren succeeded him. For two 
years "hard times" prevailed, 
until the independent treasury 
system was established to take 
the place of the former United 
States Bank. In Congress a 
resolution was passed to receive 
without debate or discussion all 
petitions relating to slavery. 
Van Buren was a typical politi- 
cian of the American type, but, 
skillful though he was, he failed 
to win the majority of the people in the Presidential election 
of 1840. 




Martin Van Buren. 

Born I 782 ; died 1862. 

President ; Governor of New York 

Senator. 



William Henry Harrison, 1841. 



§11. 



Harrison Fell a Victim to the Theory, 
Belong the Spoils." 



To the Victors 



Van Buren's successor was a General like Jackson, and 
a popular hero. William Henry Harrison of Ohio was 
elected as a result of a singular political campaign wherein 
the Whigs hurrahed for " Tippecanoe and Tyler too." His 
followers erected log cabins, and carried around barrels of 
cider to give the voters. Four million votes were cast at 
this election, twelve times as many as in that of 1824. 



342 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 




showing the vast increase in popular interest in politics. 

Harrison survived his inauguration by only one month, 

dying of physical exhaustion 
from the unfortunate demands 
of office-seekers, who gave the 
old man no rest day or night. 

§ 12. Party Succeeded Party in 

our Country in the First Half 

Century. 

Washington, though a sup- 
porter of the Constitution, was 
neither Federalist nor Anti-Fed- 
eralist. John Adams was a 
Federalist. Jefferson, the Anti- 
Federalist, in his Presidency 
was known as a Democratic 
Republican. Madison and 
Monroe were Democratic Republicans. John Quincy 
Adams, in his Presidency, was also a Democratic Republi- 
can. Andrew Jackson was known as a Democrat. Har- 
rison was the first Whig President. These party names 
marked changes in political issues, and the changes were 
due to the domestic and international progress of these first 
five decades in our country's history. Yet one main issue 
continued : The early Federalists and the later Whigs were 
for strong central government, for a liberal construction of 
the powers of Congress, President, and Supreme Court; 
while Anti-Federalists, the Democratic Republicans, and the 
Democrats, were in theory opposed to strong central govern 
ment. The Democrats favored what is called " strict 
construction," that is, giving to the National Government 



William H. Harrison. 

Born, 1773 ; died, 1841. 

President : General : Senator. 



A TARIFF AND A TREATY. 



343 



no power not expressly delegated to it by the States in the 
Constitution. Liberal construction reduces the powers re- 
served to the States in the Tenth Amendment and increases 
the powers of the Nation. 

John Tyler, 1841-1845. 

§ 13. The President had no Body of Supporters. 
Harrison was followed by John Tyler of Virginia, who 
was the first Vice-President to succeed to the Presidency 
because of the death of the Chief Executive. It is an 
interesting commentary upon 
the extraordinary development 
of the country, that but for the 
new railroads leading to Wash- 
ington, Harrison would not 
have been overwhelmed by the 
multitude of office-seekers. 

Tyler was a Democrat rather 
than a Whig, but he was an 
anti- Jackson Democrat. He had 
no following, consequently, in 
either party, and his Administra- 
tion was very unsuccessful. 

A higher tariff bill, passed 
for the protection of domestic 
manufactures, was an important 

Whig measure. In 1842" a treaty was made relating to the 
boundary line with Canada from the St. Lawrence River 
to the Atlantic Ocean. A clause relating to the return 
of fugitive criminals was an important feature of the treaty, 
which was negotiated by Daniel Webster, Secretary of State. 




John Tyler, 

Born, I 790 ; died, I 862. 

President : Governor 

of Virginia : Senator, 



344 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Why Avas the Administration of J. Q. Adams unsuccessful ? 

2. Why was the Tariff of Abominations so called? 

3. What was unique in the later career of Adams? 

4. Account for the election of Jackson. 

5. How large was the popular vote in comparison with earlier elec- 
tions? 

6. What were some of the results of Jackson's Administration? 

7. Discuss Nullification in South Carolina. 

8. Discuss the policy of Calhoun. 

9. Discuss the anti-slavery agitation of the Abolitionists. 

10. Why did Jackson destroy the United States Bank? 

11. Give an account of the affair of "the Alamo." 

12. Give a brief account of Van Buren' s Administration. 

13. What was the extent of the popular interest in the Harrison-Van 
Buren campaign? 

14. Discuss the division of parties from 1789 to 1841. 

15. Why was Tyler's Administration unsuccessful? 

16. What were the chief events of his Administration? 



SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries: Vol. III., pp. 430-655: Protective Tariffs, Com- 
mercial New England, Internal Improvements, State and National 
Banks, "The Reserved Powers," Early Chicago, Holy Alliance, 
Monroe Doctrine, The Spoils System, Jackson, Modes of Travel, 
Abolitionism, Texas. 

Hart's Source Book, pp. 212-268 : Abolitionism, Slavery, Internal Trade, 
Fugitive Slaves. 

Old South Leaflets: Nos. 42, 56 (The Monroe Doctrine), 78, 79, 80, 81, 
129, 130. 

Seward's John Quincy Adams ; and also Morse's Life. 

Sumner's Andrew Jackson. 

Shepard's Van Buren. 

Lodge's Daniel Webster. 

Schurz's Henry Clay. 

Von Hoist's Calhoun. 

Story of Life of Garrison by His Children. 

Thorpe's History of the American People, pp. 345-441. 



THE DEMOCRATIC WEST. 345 



Schouler's History of the United States, Vols. III., IV. 
McMaster's History of the People of the United States, Vol. V. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION 

1. Social Life in the " Era of Good Feeling." 

2. Protective Tariffs from Hamilton's Time to Clay's. 

3. Adams, the Champion of Free Petition. 

4. Jackson before the Presidency. 

5. Nicholas Biddle, President of the United States Bank, and his 
Ambitions, Political, Financial, and Social. 

6. The '-Spoils System." 

7. " Old Hickory " as President and the " Kitchen Cabinet." 

8. Railroads in their Influence upon Internal Improvements at the 
Public Cost. 

9. Calhoun, the Political Theorist. 

10. The Death of Lovejoy. 

11. "Wendell Phillips, the Orator of Abolitionism. 

12. The Independence of Texas. 

13. Davy Crockett. 

14. Van Buren, the First Typical Politician of National Influence. 

15. The "Log Cabin" Campaign. 

16. The Progress of Parties : — 

(a) Federalist : National Republican, Whig. 

(b) Anti-Federalist : Republican, Democratic Republican, Demo- 
cratic. 

17. The Influence of John Marshall, Chief Justice, 1801-1834, upon 
the Development of National Parties. 

IMPORTANT DATES. 

1825-29. Administration of J. Q. Adams, sixth President. 

1826. First very high tariff is adopted. 

1829-37. Administration of Andrew Jackson, seventh President. 

1832. South Carolina announces the Doctrine of Nullification. 

1837. Death of Lovejoy, the Abolitionist. 

1837-41. Administration of Martin Van Buren, eighth President. 

1837. Financial depression begins. 

1841. Administration of W. H. Harrison, ninth President. 

1841-45. Administration of John Tyler, tenth President, 



346 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OP THE NATION. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE SLAVERY DISCUSSION BECAME BITTER. 



James K. Polk, 1845-1849. 



§ 1. Polk was Elected, Pledged to the Annexation of Texas. 

By the Spanish treaty granting Florida to the United 
States, that portion of the Louisiana Territory which later 
became Texas was conceded to belong to Spain. This enor- 
mous territory had been occupied by immigrants from the 

Southern States, who proclaimed 
their independence of Mexico in 
1836, and established a sovereign 
State with slave-holding as a fun- 
damental principle. Their military 
and political leader was Sam Hous- 
ton, who had won the decisive bat- 
tle of San Jacinto, in the year of 
their independence. The Southern 
leaders wished to annex this Repub- 
lic to the Union, but failed to secure 
a majority of votes in the Senate. 
This was one of the most impor- 
tant issues of the Presidential cam- 
paign of 1844, which resulted in the election of James K. 
Polk of Tennessee. The Whigs had nominated Clay, who 
refused to take definite ground for or against the extension 
of slavery, and therefore failed to secure strong support in 
the North. Before Polk's inauguration Texas was annexed 
and admitted into the Union, as a result of the Democratic 
victory at the polls, and became a State on July 4, 1845. 




James Knox Polk. 

Born, I 795; died, 1849. 

Speaker, House of Representatives 

Governor of Tennessee : President. 



ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. 



347 



§ 2. The Mexican "War -was Fought During His Administration. 
The annexation of Texas was the occasion of the Mexican 
War, for the Southern leaders 
seized upon the question of the 
boundary of Texas as an excuse 
for sending an army to the Rio 
Grande. The conclusion of the 
brilliant campaigns of the Mexican 
War left the United States pos- 
sessed of great military prestige 
and of vastly increased territory. 
It brought us California, where 
in 1848 gold was discovered, — an 
event of the greatest importance 
in the development of the nation, 
since it led to the migration of the 
" Forty-niners," who went out in 
1849 to engage in mining and trading on the Pacific Coast 




Sam Houston. 
Born, 1793 ; died, 1863. 
President of the Republic of Te> 
Soldier : U.S. Senator. 




Sacramento City, California, in 1850. 



348 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 




The Spanish Settlement at Los Angeles, Californi 



§ 3. The Administration Settled the Oregon Question. 
President Polk forced Congress to pass a bill reducing the 

tariff, and 
after his 
own Adminis- 
tration was 
over, secured 
the admis- 
sion of Cali- 
fornia as a free 
State to bal- 
ance Texas. 
He settled 

finally, in 18-16, the disputed Oregon boundary question, ac- 
cepting 49° as our northern boundary, and England's quit- 
claim to Oregon. Thus ended the 
political war-cry, " Fifty-four forty 
or fight," in assertion of our claim 
to 51° 10" as our northern limit. 

§ 4. The Opposing Parties Regarding 
Slavery in the Territories. 

At the close of Polk's Admin- 
istration Congress was beginning 
to divide itself regularly into two 
great opposing camps, — one hav- 
ing the banner of the Wilmot Pro- 
viso of 1816, and the other the 
banner of the " Squatter Sov- 
ereignty," first proclaimed by Cass, 
the Democratic candidate for Presi- 
dent in 1848, By the Wilmot Proviso it was proposed that 




Born, 1782 ; died, 1866. 
Governor of Michigan: Soldier: Dip- 
lomat: Senator: Secretary of State. 



TERRITORIAL AGGRANDIZEMENT. 



349 



no money should be appropriated to buy territory for sla- 
very, and that all the new territory of the United States 
should be free. By the doctrine of " Squatter Sovereignty " 
it was proposed that the people of each separate Territory 
should decide for themselves whether it should come into 
the Union as a free or a slave State. 

Though an accomplished politician, Polk was too decided 
a man to avoid making a multitude of enemies. Antici- 
pating defeat, he refused a nomination for a second term. 
He ranks now in history with Jefferson and McKinley as 
an able President in an epoch of territorial expansion. 

Zachary Taylor, 1849-1850. 

§ 5. The New President was a Southern and Western Hero. 

The new President, Zachary 
Taylor, the Whig, who defeated 
Cass, the Democrat, was the gen- 
eral whom Polk, without the au- 
thorization of Congress, had or- 
dered to attack Mexico. Taylor 
was called "Old Rough and Ready,'' 
and came to the Presidency with- 
out any political experience. Tay- 
lor had been born in Virginia, and 
brought up in Kentucky ; he had 
fought in Indian wars in Illinois 
and Florida ; and was a slave-hold- 
ing planter in Louisiana. He was 
a popular war-hero of the type of Jackson and Harrison. 
Like the latter, he survived his election for only a brief 
time, dying of disease induced by overwork. 




Zachary Taylor. 

Born, I 784; died, I 850. 

President : General. 



350 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE KATION. 



§6. The Compromise of 1850 was a Surrender to the 
Slave-holders of the South. 

Taylor found the Southern leaders very angry over the 
admission of California as a free State. This and other 
matters Henry Clay, the great peacemaker, hoped to settle 
by the Compromise of 1850, which was really not a com- 
promise, but a surrender by the North to the demands of 
the South. By it slavery was confirmed in the District of 
Columbia, Utah and New Mexico were organized as Terri- 
tories upon the plan of " squatter sovereignty," and a large 
sum of money was paid to the slave-holding State of Texas 
for giving up her claim to part of New Mexico. Congress 
was proclaimed to have no jurisdiction over the interstate 
slave trade, and a severe fugitive slave law was passed. 
Slave-holder though he was, Taylor did not support this Com- 
promise. He died before it was voted upon by Congress. 

Millard Fillmore, 1850-1853. 

§ 7. New England was Against 
Compromise. 

Taylor's successor, Fillmore of 
New York, his Vice-President, 
was the bitter enemy of William 
H. Seward of New York, the 
strong anti-slavery statesman who 
had largely controlled Taylor's 
Administration. In Seward's 
place as Secretary of State Web- 
ster was installed, so that the 
Compromise was carried through. 
Miiiard Fiiimore. F his support of this Compro- 

Bom, 1800; died, 1874. rr _ r 

President: Comptroller New York State, mise in the East, especially ill his 




THE COMPROMISE A SURRENDER. 



351 




famous Seventh of March speech in the National Senate, 

1850, the most famous of all American speeches, Daniel 

Webster lost his hold upon his 

New England constituency, and 

died soon after from grief. Yet 

the speech was successful, and 

delayed the great War ten years. 

§ 8. The Fugitive Slave Law of 
1850 Aroused Great Opposition. 

The Fugitive Slave Law of 
1850 did more to bring on the 
great Civil War than any other 
single cause. It was in itself 
an unnecessary and an injudi- 
cious law, for only one slave in 

three 
thou- 
sand escaped annually until it 
was passed. It aroused violent 
opposition in the North, and led 
more slaves than before to try 
to run away. Some of its pro- 
visions denied the right of a jury 
trial to fugitive slaves, permitted 
any person to claim a Negro as a 
runaway slaA r e without evidence, 
and denied to the captured Negro 
the ancient right of habeas corpus, 
by which a man may be released 
from jail on bond upon the appeal 
of his attorney. 




Daniel Webster. 
Born, 1782 ; died, 1852. 
" Expounder of the Constitution." 
Senator from Massachusetts : Secre- 
tary of State : Orator. 



Henry Clay. 

Born, 1777; died, 1852. 

Arbiter between Freedom and Slavery, 

between the North and the South. 

Senator from Kentucky: Speaker of the 

House: Secretary of State : Orator. 



352 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



The Act was defective in two respects. It did not pre- 
vent the rescuers of a Negro captive from setting up the 
habeas corpus for him. And no means were provided to 
punish a State for encouraging slaves to run away. These 
two defects led to " underground railways," as they were 
called, where stations were set up by philanthropic anti- 
slavery people, in which slaves could hide during pursuit. 
By means of these railways thousands of Negroes were 
" spirited " from slavery in the South to freedom in Canada. 
The disturbances — and even riots — caused by attempts 
to secure fugitive slaves in accord- 
ance with this Act, brought the 
facts of slavery prominently before 
the minds of the thinking citizens 
of the North. The fines and other 
expenses of Abolitionists caught 
in the work of rescuing slaves 
ruined some of them and their 
friends, making them still more 
bitter against slavery. Many 
Northern States passed personal 
liberty laws. These laws imposed 
fines on State officers who assisted 
in the capture of fugitive slaves, dismissed from the bar of 
the courts lawyers who prosecuted in these cases, and forbade 
Negro captives from being confined in State prisons. To 
effect one capture, that of Anthony Burns in Massachusetts, 
cost the National Government one hundred thousand dollars. 
Such was the beginning of the feud between the States 
that led some to call the War of Secession, 1861-1865, 
" The War between the States." 




Theodore Parker. 

Born, 1820; died, I860. 

Orator : Reformer : Preacher. 



THEODORE PARKER. 353 



CAPTION IT 

COLORED PEOPLE 

OF BOSTON, ONE & ALL, 

Tod are hereby respectfully CAUTIONED and 
advised, to avoid conversing with the 

Watchmen and Police Officers 
of Boston, 

For since the recent ORDER OF THE MAYOR & 
ALDERMEN, they are empowered to act as 



KIDNAPPERS 

AND 

Slave Catchers, 

And they hare already been actually employed in 
KIDNAPPING, CATCHING, AND KEEPING 

SLAVES. Therefore, if you value your LIBERTY, 
and the Welfare of the Fugitives among you, Shun 
them in every possible manuer, as so many HOUJVDS 
on the track of the most unfortunate of your race* 

Keep a Sharp Look Out for 

KIDNAPPERS, and have 

TOP EYE open. 

APRIL *4, 1851. 

Theodore Parker's Placard Against the Fugitive Slave Law. 



351 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



§ 9 




Uncle Tom's Cabin" was Published. 

In 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe 
published " Uncle Tom's Cabin," 
a wonderful novel about slavery,, 
which greatly affected public sen- 
timent iii the North. Neverthe- 
less, in the election of that year 
the Democrats who defended the 
Act were successful. 

Franklin Pierce, 1853-1857. 



Harriet Beecher Stowe. 

Born. 181 I ; died, 1896. 

Poet : Novelist. 



§ 10. Pierce was Elected to Quiet 
the Anti-slavery Agitation, which 
Nevertheless Grew Greater. 



In 1852 several parties placed 
candidates in nomination for the Presidency. Of these the 
two of importance were Franklin Pierce of Maine, nominated 
by the Democrats, and General 
Wmfield Scott of Virginia, a hero 
of the War of 1812 and of the 
Mexican War. Pierce was success- 
ful, partly because the independent 
voters thought that with the Dem- 
ocrats in power there would be less 
controversy over slavery, and partly 
because Scott had many bitter per- 
sonal enemies in prominent posi- 
tions, who worked hard against his 
election. The defeat of Scott Franklin pierce. 

marked the end of the career of the Born ' ' 804 ; died ' ' 869 - 

U.S. Senator from New Hampshi 
Whig party, Which WaS killed by General: President. 




355 



the compromises of Clay. In the year 1853. the Free Soilers 
proclaimed the phrases "free soil, free speech, free labor, 
and free men." Seward's " higher law " of " conscience above 
compromise " was declared in the platform of a great national 
party. Pierce was unfortunate in placing in his Cabinet Jef- 
ferson Davis, son-in-law of the late General Taylor. Davis, 
who later became President of the Confederate States, gave 
him much unwise advice. Pierce, though well educated, was 
deficient in power to discern " the signs of the times." 

§11. The Struggles in "Bleeding Kansas" Led to the 
Forming of the Republican Party. 

In 1854 was passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, probably 
the worst law in the history of the United States. It 
organized Kansas and Nebraska as Territories so that they 
might enter the Union as States upon the plan of " squatter 
sovereignty," which allowed a majority of the citizens in 
a Territory to decide whether a State should be slave or 
free. This Act was not in harmony with the Missouri Com- 
promise, which had already provided for freedom in the 
Louisiana Purchase north of 36° 31' except Missouri. Im- 
mediately following the passage of the Act bands of " Sons 
of the South," commonly styled " Border Ruffians," pushed 
into Kansas. Meantime the free-labor settlers drew up a 
free-State Constitution. New England formed a great im- 
migration society to secure Kanses for freedom. 

The result was bloodshed and riot all over eastern Kan- 
sas. In these encounters John Brown became prominent. 
" Bleeding Kansas " became the one great political theme. 
Its terrible experiences resulted in the organization of a new 
Republican party, which included the old " Free Soilers," 
the Abolitionists, and the opponents of the Nebraska-Kansas 



356 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



Act. In the campaign of 1856, the Democrats were suc- 
cessful in securing the votes of all the Southern States, 
and of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Mis- 
souri, and California. Nevertheless the capturing of the 
other Northern States by this new party struck terror to 
the hearts of the slavery leaders who saw their days of 
ascendency in National affairs passing away. 



James Buchanan, 1857-1861. 

§ 12. The Dred Scott Decision. 

Another scholar, James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, suc- 
ceeded Pierce, and was equally wrong on the great issues, 
though an expert politician and diplomatist. The Fugitive 

Slave Law of 1850, and the 
Kansas-Nebraska Act, followed 
by the appearance of " Uncle 
Tom's Cabin," had prepared the 
way for the great Northern 
agitation which followed the 
Dred Scott Decision of 1857. 
Dred Scott had been taken by 
his master to Illinois, a free 
State, thence to the Nebraska 
Territory, and thence to Mis- 
souri, a slave State, where he 
asked for his liberty, on the 
ground that life in the free North 
had made him free. The Su- 
preme Court of the United States decided that since Dred 
Scott was mere chattel property, he was not a citizen, and 
could not sue in the Court; but the Chief Justice, Roger B. 




James Buchanan. 

Born, 1791 ; died, 1868. 

U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania 

Diplomat : Secretary of State : 

President. 



i 



THE LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DEBATE. 



357 




Taney, went on to say in substance, that Congress had no 
right of legislation in the matter of slavery in the Territories. 
This led to the great Lincoln and Douglas debate in 1858 
in Illinois, in which Lincoln declared : " I admit that the 
emigrant to Kansas and Nebraska is competent to govern 
himself, but I deny his 
right to govern any other 
person without that per- 
son's consent. ... A 
house divided against 
itself cannot stand. I be- 
lieve this government can- 
not endure permanently 
half slave and half free 

I do not expect the hoUSe En S ine House at Harper's Ferry. 

to fall, but I expect it will cease to be divided. It will 
become all one thing or all the other." 

Lincoln did not win in this debate, for Douglas was re- 
elected Senator, upon pledges to the slave-holding interests 
that by offending his Northern supporters made it impos- 
sible for him to be elected President two years later. 

Seward also declared the struggle between slavery and 
freedom an " irrepressible conflict." The slave-holding 
aristocracy replied that Congress ought to pass laws to 
protect the owners of slaves as property in the Territories. 

§ 13. A Southern "White Man Urged Abolition. 

In 1857 a book published in North Carolina, Helper's 
" Impending Crisis," advised all the whites of the South 
who held no slaves to support the abolition movement. 
The popularity of this book alarmed the slave-holders. 



358 



POLITICAL PROGKESiS OF THE NATION. 



§ 14. John Brown Tried to Raise an Insurrection. 

The great political and religious controversies over sla- 
very were intensified by John Brown's raid into Virginia, 

and by his capture and 
execution, 1859. John 
Brown, with nineteen fol- 
lowers, seized the United 
States Arsenal at Har- 
per's Ferry, with the inten- 
tion to start an insurrec- 
tion that would set the 
slaves at the South free. 
He was overcome by armed 
troops, convicted in the 
courts of Virginia, and ex- 
ecuted. Brown was a law- 
breaker and a revolution- 
ist, but by a fanatic's 
death he became a hero and 
a martyr in the eyes of the 
Abolitionists of the North. 
His attempt both angered and frightened all slaveholders. 
§ 15. Secession was Proposed. 
Toward the end of Buchanan's Administration, some South- 
ern leaders began to propose that the Southern States secede 
from the Union. Calhoun in earlier days had defended se- 
cession as constitutional. For a dozen years that wonderful 
orator, William L. Yancey of Alabama, had urged this course. 
He believed it necessary for the security of the Southern social 
system. Every member of Buchanan's Cabinet joined this 
movement, though Buchanan himself was loyal to the North. 




John Brown Going to Execution. 
Born, 1800; executed, 1859. Agitator. 



POLITICAL PKOGKESS OF THE NATION. 



359 




William Lowndes Yancey. 
Born, 1814; died, 1863. 
Orator. 



§ 16. Several Parties Presented Candidates in 1860. 
The election of 1860 was excit- 
ing to the highest degree. Several 
candidates were placed in nomina- 
tion for the Presidency by different 
factions and parties. The North- 
ern Democrats nominated Senator 
Douglas, and the Southern Demo- 
crats Breckinridge. A new and 
conservative party, called the Con- 
stitutional Union . Party, placed 
Governor Bell of Tennessee in 
nomination. But the Republicans 
at Chicago nominated Abraham 
Lincoln as a compromise after a 
long contest between the most prominent candidates, 
Seward and Chase. 

§ 17. The Southern States United to Protect Their 
Social System. 

The sixteen years of bitter discussion over slavery that 
began with the annexation of Texas, 1845, were euding 
in a great war, their inevitable outcome. Polk of Ten- 
nessee, a Democrat, had brought slave-holding Texas into 
the Union, and had won the great Southwest, by force 
of arms, against many indignant protests. Taylor of Lou- 
isiana, a Whig, and Fillmore of New York, a Whig, had 
seen the North aroused over fugitive slave laws that were 
intended to make the whole Union a great corral-yard for 
Negroes. Pierce of Maine, and Buchanan of Pennsylvania, 
Democrats, had heard and seen civil dissensions, riots, and 
bloodshed, over the question that would not down. 



360 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



Meantime population had grown, wealth had increased, 
more States had entered the Union, and the people were 
gaining in intelligence and morality. Meantime, too, the 
South was being passed by the North in the march of 

r^ ^ , , ^^, ^^^ ^^^^-^.^-^^^ s^^^ progress. Slave- 
^P 1PTP1 labor did not in- 

crease population, 
wealth, inte-lli- 




gence, 



and mo- 



rality as fast as 
did free labor. In 
defence of their 
whole social sys- 
tem the Southern- 
ers felt compelled 
to unite in order 
to form a new 
separate and har- 
monious nation. 

§ 18. Eleven 

Southern States 

Seceded. 

The election of 
Lincoln was fol- 
lowed by the immediate secession of South Carolina, the 
result of a convention held in December. In the session of 
Congress preceding the inauguration of Lincoln a new com- 
promise was proposed. This provided for the carrying out 
of the Missouri Compromise with " squatter sovereignty " in 
the new States, and the return of fugitive slaves, or else 
payment for them by the National Government. This 



Banner of South Carolina at the Secession Convention. 



SECESSION. 



361 



compromise would have been carried in Congress but for 
the anxiety of the Southern leaders to push matters rapidly. 
The secession of South Carolina was followed by like 
action in Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisi- 
ana, in January, and in Texas in February. Only in the 
last-named State did the people have a direct vote on the 
matter. In all other States the decision was made by 
Conventions. The secession of Virginia, Tennessee, Arkan- 
sas, and North Carolina, followed from April to May. For 
this stupendous movement out of the Union there was no 
adequate cause. The Democrats retained a majority in Con- 
gress, and no legislation against slavery was possible. Some 
leaders of the South were vigorously opposed to secession. 



§ 19. The South was United, but the North was Divided. 

Nevertheless, as soon as the war actually began, though 
only one voter in seven was a 
slave-holder, the South was almost 
a unit in its intention to set up 
by force of arms an independent 
slave-holding Confederacy. In the 
North many statesmen were fully 
agreed that the formation of the 
new nation ought to be allowed. 
Horace Greeley, the famous anti- 
slavery agitator and Republican 
journalist, and Wendell Phillips, 
the great Abolitionist orator, took 
this ground. Not even Abraham 
Lincoln foresaw that a critical and 
desperate war was to rage for four years upon this issue. 




Wendell Phillips. 

Born, 1811; died, I 884. 

Orator. 



362 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 

CHARLESTON 

MERCURY 

EXTRA: 



Passed unanimously at 1.15 o'clock, P» *V.. December 
20/A, I860. 

4JV ORDINANCE 

To dissolve the Vnion between the Stale of South Carolina and 
other States united utith her under the compact entitled l <The 
Constitution of the United States of America!* 

We, the People efibt Side of South Carolina, in Convention auembleo\ do declare and ordaia, end 
it hereby declared and ordained, 

Tbat the Ordioaoc* adopted by as in Convenlios, on (be tweDty-ibird day of Hay, la ib» 
year of our Lord ooe thousand seven hundred tad eighty -eight, whereby tbe Constitution of lb* 
Vtuiei Stales of dmeno* was ratified, and also, all Acta nod parts of Act* of the General 
Assembly of ibis State, ratifying amendments of tha said Coostitutioo, are hereby repealed; 
ead tbat tbe anion cow subsisting between South Caroline end other Slilea, under the oaae of 
- Tb» Coiled States of, America," is hereby dissolved. 



THE 



UNION 



DISSOLVED! 



THE SLAVERY QUESTION. 363 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What was the political issue in the Presidential campaign of 1844 ? 

2. What were some of the results of the Mexican War ? 

3. What were other important territorial matters dealt with in Polk's 
Administration ? 

4. Contrast the " Wilmot Proviso" and " Squatter Sovereignty." 

5. Characterize Polk as President. 

6. What was the cause of Taylor's election ? 

7. Discuss the "Compromise of 1850." 

8. Discuss Webster's " Seventh of March" speech. 

9. Discuss the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. 

10. How did the Northern States resist the Law ? 

11. Who were the Presidents from 1850 to 1861 ? 

12. What were the ideals of the Free-soilers ? 

13. What troubles led to the formation of the Republican party ? 

14. Discuss the Dred Scott Decision. 

15. What was the issue in the Lincoln-Douglas debate ? 

16. Discuss John Brown. 

17. Discuss Uncle Tom's Cabin and The Impending Crisis. 

18. Trace the development of the slavery contest from 1845 to 1861. 

19. What States seceded ? 

20. Compare the state of public sentiment North and South. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

W. H. Smith's Political History of Slavery, Vol. I. 

Caldwell's American History (sources). 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. IV, pp. 11-210. 

Sparks's Expansion of the American People, pp. 300-365. 

Wilson's Division and Be-union, pp. 133-212. 

Goldwin Smith's The United States, Political History, pp. 212-244. 

Stanwood's History of Presidential Elections. 

Schouler's History of the United States, Vol. V. 

MacDonald's Select Charters, Vol. II., Webster's Speeches, Dred Scott 

Decision, Laws, etc. 
Thorpe's History of the American People, pp. 384-444. 
Johnston's American Politics. 
Wilson's Rise and Fall of the Slave Power. 
Shepard's Martin Van Buren. 
Burgess's The Middle Period. 



364 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE KATIOX. 



Schurz's Henry Clay. 

Rhodes's History of the U. S. from the Compromise of 1850, Vol. I. 

Chittendon's Abraham Lincoln's Speeches. 

Lives of Lincoln by Morse, Hapgood, Curtis. 

Greeley's The American Conflict, Vol. I. 

Von Hoist's John Brown. 

Various other Lives of the men of the period; e.g., American Statesman 

series, especially McLaughlin's Lewis Cass and Von Hoist's Calhoun. 

These are but a few references to the immense body of historical 
literature that deals with the causes of the War of Secession. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION. 

1. Texas, with particular reference to its early citizens. 

2. The Discovery of Gold in California. 

3. Clay's Defeats for the Presidency. 

4. " Uncle Tom's Cabin : " Is it a fair picture of slavery ? 

5. " Underground Railways." 

6. The Case of Anthony Burns. 

7. Free-soilers and other Temporary Political Parties. 

8. " Bleeding Kansas." 

9. John Brown : Hero or Criminal ? 

10. Lincoln's Speeches : What is true Americanism ? See page ii. 

11. Dred Scott. 

12. The Secession Ordinances. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1845-49. Polk is the eleventh President of the United States. 

1845. Annexation and Admission of Texas. 

1846-47. Mexican War. 

1848. Discovery of Gold in California. 

1849-50. Taylor is the twelfth President. 

1850. Compromise of 1850 and Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. 

1850-53. Fillmore is the thirteenth President. 

1852. Publication of Mrs. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. 

1853-57. Pierce is the fourteenth President. 

1854. Nebraska Act. 

1857-1861. Buchanan is the fifteenth President. 

1857. Dred Scott Decision. 

1859. John Brown's Raid. 

1860. Election of a President not pro-slavery. 



DISUNION. 



365 



CHAPTER V. 



RENDING THE NATION AND UNITING IT AGAIN. 

Abraham Lincoln, 1861-1865. 

§ 1. Lincoln Had the Constant Support of the " Plain People." 

The new President was not only the most skilful poli- 
tician ever in Washington, but he was also a man of reso- 
lute will, infinite 
patience, sound 
morality, and un- 
changing enthusi- 
asm for humanity. 
Lincoln had in 
him elements of 
the same stock 
that had given 
George Washing- 
ton, Patrick 
Henry, Thomas 
Jefferson, John 
Marshall, and 
Henry Clay to the 
nation. He knew 
just how far from 
day to day the 
"plain people," 
whom he under- 
stood and loved, 




Soldier 



Abraham Lincoln. 
Born, 1809 ; killed, I 865. 
Member of Congress from Illinois: President. 



would go with him upon the great issues of the War. He 
led them with skill, and they followed him with intelligence 
and devotion. 



366 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATIOK. 

§ 2. Lincoln had been Perfectly Trained for His Task. 

The " plain people " knew the story of Lincoln's early life. 
Sprung from generations of pioneers and backwoodsmen, he 
had the frank sincerity and the warm heartedness of the free 
poor. In this sinewy giant there was true genius. Here 
was a man quick to surrender trifles in order to protect 
essentials. Poorly educated in early life, he studied with 
private teachers after he was already a successful lawyer, 
so that the President who had been a " rail-splitter " and 
" flat-boatman " came to his high office, and to the most 
frightful task that any ruler ever faced, a true scholar, a 
thinker, a statesman. He had mastered every detail of the 
politics of his State, had served a term in Congress at Wash- 
ington, and in many speeches had expounded the meaning 
of Christian Americanism. He was to show himself mas- 
ter of the politics of a divided nation, and the living exam- 
ple of heroic fortitude through evil and through good report. 

Such was the man upon whom for four years the destiny 
of a great people slowly turned. Fate was conquered by 
his will. Again and again it was Lincoln alone of men in 
office who saw the right thing to do, and how to do it. 
He overcame the South; yet no man in all the South loved 
it as well as he. Abraham Lincoln was a Southerner in 
blood and birth. He overcame the South because he con- 
solidated the North. Exponent of the true gospel of 
Americanism, — the independence of each and all, with 
opportunity open to all, — sympathetic, persistent, perfectly 
honest ; he became the martyr and the final sacrifice for all 
the errors of human slavery in a nation dedicated to freedom 
and equality in " life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.'' 

Too busy to seek riches, Abraham Lincoln spent his lifc 



THE RISING OF THE NORTH. 



367 



in learning wisdom. As a ruler of men he stands the su- 
preme example of success in a crisis not less than the most 
terrible mankind ever confronted. The failure of the Union 
would have been the end of man's dream of democracy. 

§3. The Attack on Fort Sumter United the North in the 
Defence of the Union. 

On April 14, 1861, the soldiers of South Carolina secured 
possession, after a three days' fight, of Fort Sumter in 
Charleston Harbor. The next day President Lincoln issued 
a proclamation calling for seventy-five thousand volunteers. 
The question in the North was 
no longer that of slavery, but of 
the preservation of the Union. 
Millions in the North did not 
care whether the Negroes were 
slaves or not : they did care 
whether there were two nations, 
one slave and one free, to wran- 
gle and to fight here over anti- 
slavery documents in the mails 
and over the return of fugitive 
slaves. The ex-Presidents Frank- 
lin Pierce and James Buchanan, 
though strongly sympathizing 
with the Southern aristocracy, 
came to the support of the 
Union cause. So did Stephen A. Douglas, Lincoln's great 
opponent, never so great as in the support he gave the 
Union upon the oratorical platform during the first year 
of the Administration. Immediately volunteers for the 
Union Army crowded forward, Massachusetts in the lead. 




Jefferson Davis. 

Born, 1808 ; died, I 889. 

President Confederate States of 

America: Soldier: U. S. Senator from 

Mississippi : U. S. Secretary of State. 



368 



POLITICAL PKOGKESS OF THE NATION. 



§ 4. Four Slave-Holding States Remained in the Union. 

The first contests were over the question whether Dela- 
ware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, all of them slave 
States, would join the Confederacy. This discussion re- 
sulted in the immediate secession of West Virginia from 
Virginia. Delaware came out boldly for the Union. Mary- 
land and Kentucky followed after some discussion. Mis- 
souri was won after a military struggle, which ended in the 
defeat of the Confederates in 1862. Eastern Tennessee 
tried to secede from Tennessee and to stay in the Union. 
§ 5. The Southerners were Greatly Outnumbered. 
The seceding slave States, eleven in number, contained 
9,000,000 inhabitants, of whom over 3,000,000 were Ne- 
groes. The loyal 
Union States 
numbered 22,- 
000,000 whites. 
If the North 
could be organ- 
ized, the defeat 
of the South 
was inevitable. 

At the begin- 
ning of the War 
there were as 
many Southerners in arms as Northerners, but as it pro- 
gressed the Northern soldiers came to outnumber the South- 
erners two, and even three, to one. In the North was a 
magnificent industrial organization, while the South had 
practically no factories. The Southern sea-coast towns were 
blockaded, and all outside supplies effectually shut out. 







3 _ ^--w^— , • 

-■■V. — .. /.- 



Cap tol of the Confederate States of America, 
at Richmond, Virginia. 



MONEY. 



369 



§ 6. The Money- 
System of the 
North was Su- 
perior to that 
of the South. 

However, the 
final victory was 
by no means easy 
for the Union- 
ists of the North, 
despite their 
great resources. 
Immense sums 
of money had to 
be raised upon 
the bonds of the 
United States, 
specie payments 
ceased, and gold 
went to a pre- 
mium. Irredeem- 
able paper cur- 
rency was is- 
sued, and heavy 
duties both as 
tariffs and as in- 
ternal revenue 
taxes were im- 
posed. The Na- 
tional Bank sys- 
tem was organ- 
ized, primarily to 




370 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



help sell the bonds of the Government, but secondarily to 
promote the interests of trade. On their side the Confeder- 
ates were obliged to issue immense amounts of bonds, which 
were sold only at ruinous rates of discount. At last paper 
money was issued, redeemable only in case of victory. 
These notes were soon almost worthless in the markets. 

§ 7. The Sacrifices of the South. 

The blockade of the ports of the seceding States pre- 
vented the shipment of cotton, and poverty and distress 
ruled after 1862 throughout the entire territory of the 
Confederacy. The value of ordinary articles of commerce 
will be appreciated from the fact that in Richmond, Vir- 
ginia, the Capital of the Confederacy, a pound of coffee 
was worth $2.50 in gold, and brandy was worth $25 in gold 
per quart. Salt was worth $1 per pound in Richmond just 
before its evacuation by the Confederates. 

During the War highroads were torn up, bridges and build- 
ings were destroyed, and agriculture was greatly neglected. 
Some of the wagon roads were hardly traveled over for years. 
The Southern people lost all their slaves. The War cost 
them 12,000,000,000 worth of human property. A paralysis 
settled upon business, and there was poverty everywhere. 
The sacrifices of Southerners for " The Cause " surpassed 
even those of the Continentals in the War of Independence. 

§ 8. " The Trent Affair " Concerned the Rights of Neutrals. 
Early in the War, the diplomatic affairs of the Nation 
were extremely difficult and delicate to handle. The South 
had exported annually great amounts of cotton to be made 
rip into goods in England. There the commercial classes were 
strongly disposed to assist the Confederacy. The ruling 



"A NEW BIRTH OF FREEDOM." 



371 



aristocrats were almost unanimous for the South. The free 
workingmen, however, and the Queen were anti-slavery. 

In 1861 a Union naval Cap tail], Wilkes, seized two Con- 
federate Commissioners, Mason and Slidell, on the British 
steamer, Trent, bound for Europe, where they were inten- 
ding to secure foreign recognition of the " new Nation." 
Lincoln, however, ordered their release. Once in Europe, 
they were not as successful as they hoped to be, for the 
Union's diplomatic affairs were admirably managed, espe- 
cially in England, where Charles Francis Adams, son of 
John Quincy Adams, represented the United States. 




Chase Smith 

Stanton Lincoln Welles Seward Blair Bates 

Cabinet of President Lincoln, January I, 1863. 

§ 9. The Emancipation Proclamation, Jan. 1, 1863. 

The greatest political event of Lincoln's Administration 
was the publication of the Emancipation Proclamation in 
January, 1863. Long before then, Lincoln had formed the 



372 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



intention of publishing such a proclamation as soon as it 
was wise to do so. By it he hoped to satisfy the Northern 
anti-slavery conscience and to explain the Nation's position 
to the world. The victory at Antietam, Maryland, in Sep- 
tember, 1862, gave him the opportunity, and he immediately 
issued a preliminary Proclamation. 

The final Emancipation Proclamation set free all persons 
in slavery in every seceding State. The slave States that 
stood by the Union abolished slavery later by their own 
legislation. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu- 
tion, abolishing slavery, was, however, not passed by Con- 
gress until 1865 in January, and did not go into force until 
ratified by two-thirds of the States in December of that year. 

§ 10. Henry Ward Beecher Went to England. 

In the Fall of 1863, the President encouraged Henry 

Ward Beecher to go to England, 
and to talk there with the " plain 
people " about the issues of the 
great War. Beecher was a brother 
of the author of " Uncle Tom's 
Cabin," and a great orator. He 
had a rough reception at first, 
for England's manufacturing and 
commercial interests had been 
greatly injured by the blockade of 
the Southern ports ; but the mid- 
dle class people were enthusiastic 
in the Union cause. The starv- 
ing cotton-workers saw in Negro 
emancipation the progress of hu- 
manity. The aristocracy was never converted but dared to 




Henry Ward Beecher. 

Born, 1813 ; died, 1887. 

Preacher : Orator. 



EUROPEAN DIFFICULTIES. 373 



do nothing important for the Secessionist cause. American 
diplomacy and American oratory together kept England 
neutral, and gave the Union armies a chance to win their 
vast and fiercely fought campaigns. 

§ 11. The Confederacy Equipped the Alabama in Scotland. 

In one respect only did Great Britain permit assistance 
to the Confederate cause. In English ship-yards were 
fitted out several cruisers, among them the Alabama, that did 
great damage to American shipping on the high seas ; for 
which damage England was later compelled to pay heavily. 

In all Europe only Russia openly favored the Union cause. 
There in 1861 Czar Alexander had set free the serfs. 

§ 12. There was Opposition to the "War in the North. 
The War was not prosecuted without opposition in the 
North. This opposition was partly due to the necessary 
drafting of citizens to enter the Union armies, partly to the 
activity of those who saw in the raising of cotton by slaves 
some financial benefit to themselves, and partly to the agi- 
tation of theorists who believed the National Government 
had no right to compel the seceding States to return. The 
Government at times was forced to pay bounties and to 
draft men for the armies. 

§ 13. Lincoln was Re-elected by a Great Majority of the 
Voting States. 

In 1864 Lincoln was re-elected, his opponent being Gen- 
eral McClellan, formerly Commanding General of the Union 
Army in Virginia. Lincoln carried all the Union States 
except Delaware and Kentucky. The result of this politi- 
cal victory was an immense increase in the number of men 
who volunteered in defence of the Union. 



374 POLITICAL PROGKESS OF THE NATION . 



§ 14. The War Ended, April 9, 1865, and Lincoln "Was 
Assassinated, April 14. 

On April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, 
the Southern Confederacy came to an end through the 

Jl MAvt^ &€&>£. fym^ ffiurfcZ 
wW/ fiollviru>L UsU^uli LfsfiyoiZtA^/ 

/&/ AlW^Ki dltfU- fitrttt Orf^z ■ i^*— . 

rtbk 

The Surrender of General Lee. 

surrender of their great General, Robert E. Lee. Five days 
later Lincoln was assassinated by a sympathizer with the 



THE ASSASSINATION OF LINCOLN. 375 



South, John Wilkes Booth, who was insane at the time. In 
Lincoln's death, the Nation lost the one man who knew how 
to bring the North and the South together in sympathy and 

& flhsu &l*£y.. #*t&v. flhA44 i 

J <pudL <*£<>«*/ u*ae^X <*s*xL &jj&tLd* y^AAjn^t'£-K, ay^u usov-d. of 
y^^u. uHLc^ J^^U ^^^^^_^ ^^^^ 

ef *4(n**- -lM^*tyO-l**As*J: \ O*~o£- JLe^oC***- f»~ «r»JL "iAu^ ^J^r^-^^o^ 
<y»jls*~o^ <rfi?£j» £*v*oL G~^l £**t t *s*^L -t&, «**&L~»~s fs~<U*. 



JO^U^c^ ^- 



A Letter of President Lincoln, 1864. 



in purpose. Such was his singular prescience that on leav- 
ing home to assume the Presidency, and frequently there- 
after, he had expressed his anticipation of a martyr's death. 



376 



POLITICAL PBOGKESS OF THE NATION. 



Andrew Johnson, 1865-1869. 

§ 15. Great Difficulties Confronted the New Chief Executive. 
The new President had been brought up under such con- 
ditions of illiteracy that he was unable to read until almost 
old enough to vote. Andrew Johnson came from Tennessee, 
and intended to carry out Lincoln's policy, but was unable, 
from want of tact, to do so. Lincoln always declared that 
the Confederate States were merely absent from the Union. 

Johnson held, therefore, that the 
States ought not to be punished, 
and that the Southern leaders 
ought to be pardoned. 

It needed the utmost political 
skill to bring concord out of dis- 
cord. One million men, North 
and South, had been killed or 
maimed. The War had cost the 
North in one way and another 
ten billion dollars ; the South had 
lost nearly as many billions more. 
The military and naval forces 
were to be disbanded, the im- 
mense national debt of three 
and a half billion dollars was 
to be paid, the wounded Union soldiers and sailors and the 
widows and orphans of the dead must be cared for, and the 
re- united North and South must adjust themselves to the 
conditions of peace. The million of men in the Union ser- 
vice were speedily mustered out, and returned to the ordi- 
nary vocations of life, most of them to win success, for the 
army and navy had been schools for the education of men. 




Andrew Johnson. 

Born, I 808; died, I 875. 

Governor of Tennessee : Member ot 

Congress: U. S. Senator: President. 



WAXT OF TACT. 377 



§ 16. Johnson Failed to Secure Support for his Measures. 

The great task of Johnson's Administration was the 
reconstruction of the governments of the Southern States. 
Unfortunately, because Johnson had been a War Democrat, 
he failed to secure Republican support in Congress. He 
had been a loyal Unionist as Governor of Tennessee. He 
had levied assessments upon rich Southerners, who were 
afraid, as he said, to fight in the Confederate army ; and he 
gave the money thus secured to the poor mothers left at 
home to care for children while their fathers were in the 
Southern armies. He had made a notable record in politics 
and statesmanship. But as a national leader he was unfor- 
tunate in his methods of seeking support for his views. 

Some of the Southern States, immediately upon the 
renewal of State government under the Union, passed laws 
intended to neutralize the effects of Negro emancipation. 
These provided that Negroes should be compelled to work 
whether they wished to do so or not. Angered by these 
laws, the majority in Congress proposed to treat the South- 
ern States as Territories, and to require them to go through 
the process of being admitted into the Union as States. 
Johnson denounced this policy. 

§ 17. The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution Was 
Adopted and Ratified. 

Johnson also opposed the work of the Freedmen's 
Bureau, which was largely that of arbitrating disputes 
between the employer and Negroes, and between the Negroes 
themselves. He regarded this work as a usurpation of the 
rights and responsibilities of government. 

In 1866 the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 
making Negroes citizens of the United States, was passed 



378 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



in Congress, and secured the required two-thirds majority of 
the States, though the seven late Confederate States then 
back in the Union voted against it. 

§ 18. The Reconstruction Act was Distasteful to the South. 

In 1867 Congress passed the Reconstruction Act, which 
it had been Lincoln's hope to avoid. By this Act the late 
Confederate States, except Tennessee, were formed into five 
military districts, each under an army officer appointed by 
the President. In them the ex-Confederates could not vote. 
The result was that a great body of white political adven- 
turers from the North swarmed into the South. These 
men were called " carpet-baggers," because they had little or 
no property. They were represented in political caricatures 
as carrying their belongings in hand- valises or " carpet- 
bags," so-called from the material of which they were made. 
These adventurers speedily took possession of the various 
State Governments. The Act also provided that the voters 
in States yet out of the Union should elect delegates to 
a Constitutional Convention, and then apply for admission. 

§ 19. The President was Impeached, but Acquitted. 
In 1868, as the result of his long and constant quarrels 
with Congress, President Johnson was impeached. His 
opponents failed to convict him by a vote of thirty-five to 
nineteen in the Senate, one short of the required two-thirds 
majority. The question at issue was whether the President 
had the right to remove Cabinet officers without the con- 
sent of the Senate, and irrespective of any law of Congress 
to the contrary. His impeachment was a partisan error. 
Johnson was far too sincere a patriot to deserve condemna- 
tion for his course, however tactless it may have been. 



THE RECONSTRUCTION POLICY. 379 



§ 20. International Affairs were Well Managed. 
During Johnson's Administration, the Empire established 
contrary to the Monroe Doctrine, by the French in Mexico 
several years earlier with Maximilian, the Austrian Arch- 
duke, as Emperor, collapsed, and Maximilian himself was 
executed in 1866. Another important event of this Ad- 
ministration was the acquisition of Alaska by purchase from 
Russia for $7,200,000. This was accomplished by Seward, 
Secretary of State, and by some was called " Seward's folly." 

§ 21. The Reconstruction Policy Won in the Election of 1868. 

In 1868 the Presidential campaign had as its issue the 
support of the various Reconstruction Acts. This was ad- 
vocated by the Republicans, and opposed by the Democrats. 
Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas had not yet con- 
formed to the requirements of these Acts, and were still out 
of the Union of States. The Republican party, supporting 
the Reconstruction Acts, was successful in electing General 
Grant of Illinois, the hero of the Civil War. His opponent 
was Horatio Seymour of New York, a War Democrat. 

§ 22. The Southerners Organized Secret Societies. 

The final year of this Administration, bringing, as it did, 
the proposed Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 
saw the organization of the secret societies of the Southern 
States, known as the Ku-Klux. These secret societies terri- 
fied the Negroes, with the intention of preventing them from 
voting. The Southern whites proposed to secure the con- 
trol of the State Governments from the " carpet-baggers," 
and were, in several cases, successful. Many small battles 
were fought between the Ku-Klux and the carpet-baggers. 
This domestic warfare continued for ten years or more. 



380 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



§ 23. The Problems of Reconstruction -were Political, 
Economic, and Social. 

The Administrations of Lincoln and Johnson saw the 
beginning rather than the end of the reconstruction of 
the governments of the ex-Confederate States. The end 
did not come until the Administration of Hayes, 1877, 
when the Federal troops were withdrawn. Reconstruction 
began when West Virginia was admitted, 1863, and con- 
tinued with the admissions of Louisiana and Arkansas, 
into the Union, 1865. For the next few years regular 
troops of the United States held the territory of most of 
the States that had seceded, pending agreements by them 
to repeal the Ordinances of Secession, to repudiate public 
debts incurred to assist the Confederacy, and to abolish 
slavery by their own legislation. The freedmen were pro- 
tected in their citizenship by the Civil Rights Act, and the 
Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments were added to the 
Constitution, as was also the Fifteenth Amendment several 
years later, 1870. Meantime the ex-Confederate States 
were gradually returning into the Union. 

All these Acts and Amendments taken together consti- 
tuted the Republican policy of reconstruction, meant wisely 
or unwisely to enforce, in the Southern States, the lessons 
of the War. These lessons were two: that no State can 
secede from the Union ; and that the Negro is properly a 
citizen, not a chattel slave. 

As a military fact the Confederate States had failed to 
maintain their secession. Their people, after the War, 
though defeated, endeavored by legislation, to force the 
Negroes back into a dependence and a servitude equivalent 
to slavery. Hence, one problem of reconstruction was 



THE FORCED LABOR SYSTEM. 381 



political, — a matter of government. But the fundamental 
fact of slavery had been that it was both a social institution 
that made the whites masters and relieved them from manual 
work, and an economic institution that enabled the success- 
ful masters to live in luxury upon the forced labor of 
others. It was this fundamental fact of slavery that so 
directly influenced the mind of Abraham Lincoln, as seen 
in the second inaugural address, " Yet, if God wills that 
this . . . mighty scourge of war . . . continue until all the 
wealth piled by the bondman's two hundred and fifty years 
of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of 
blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn 
with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago so 
still it must be said, ' The judgments of the Lord are true 
and righteous altogether.' " 

§ 24. What the War and Reconstruction Accomplished. 

The Emancipation Proclamation began a far greater 
work than the freeing of the Negroes. It broke up a social 
system, and revolutionized the mode of life of twelve 
million people in fifteen slave-holding States. It undid the 
work of two and a half centuries. 

Slavery and servitude for life or for a term of years were 
common in early days in America. At first there were far 
more white than black bondservants. But the white slaves 
and bondmen ran away from the masters or served out 
their terms. Moreover, in early days slavery and servitude 
were not always inherited. In those days the children of 
bondmen were often free. Until the invention of the 
cotton gin slavery was steadily dying out There was little 
of it in the North in 1800. 



382 POLITICAL PROGRESS OP THE NATION. 



But by 1820 it became apparent that the forced, labor of 
black men was profitable in cotton fields as well as in rice 
swamps. In 1808 the foreign trade in slaves had been 
prohibited. Then there grew up a domestic slave trade 
scarcely less cruel, though indeed less fatal to life. 

Virginia became a great market from which Negroes were 
sold to the lower South. In the single year, 1836, Virginia 
received 124,000,000 for slaves. At $600 each on the 
average, this represented a sale of 40,000 men and women. 
In the decade 1831-1840, 375,000 white people left 
Virginia to go into the free States, for they " had found 
by sad. experience that a country of slaves was not a coun- 
try for them,' 1 as their representatives publicly said. To 
this condition had the mother-State of Presidents sunk but 
a generation after Washington's death. The condition of 
Kentucky and Missouri was not much better. 

In 1850 there were 350,000 slaveholders in the South, 
and some 3,000,000 slaves. Since many slaveholders were 
heads of families, it is estimated that 1,500,000 whites, out 
of 6,000,000 whites in all, held all the slaves, an average 
of nine slaves to each slave-holding family. Yet 1,600 
slave-holding families held 300,000 slaves, and 40,000 
families owned over half of all the slaves. Great planta- 
tions were being worked by hundreds of slaves under 
overseers, and the plantations were ever growing greater. 
Behind the great planters were the cotton, tobacco, and 
rice merchants who handled the products, and the bankers, 
who loaned money to market the crops. Many of the 
merchants and bankers were Baltimore and New York 
business men. There was a great deal of Northern capital 
in the South. Dependent upon the planters and merchants 



THE KU1N OF THE SOUTH. 



383 



were the professional people, — the ministers, physicians, and 
lawyers, — and the tradespeople. Slavery had built upon a 
complicated social structure. Anti-slavery meant far more 
than freeing the slaves. It meant leaving the planters their 
land and taking away their unpaid laborers ; it meant ruin to 
the creditors of the planters ; it meant social revolution. 

The Southern slavery that emancipation destroyed and 
reconstruction prevented from returning, was a very differ- 
ent slavery from 
the house- and 
farm-slavery typi- 
cal of earlier days, 
but still remain- 
i n g here and 
there; that domes- 
tic slavery w a s 
often an alto- 
gether decent re- 
lation, creditable 
to the master and 
not hurtful to the slave. The slavery of the great planta- 
tion was a slavery to human greed and cruelty. Often the 
Xegroes were poorly fed, unattended in illness, badly 
housed, not decently clothed, terribly beaten, and vilely 
abused. Upon that slavery the War descended as the 
punishment of the wrath of God. Reconstruction, harsh 
as it was, too harsh, indeed, prevented its restoration. 

The ruin of the slave-aristocracy by the War, the death 
or disablement in battle of many of the leaders, the loss of 
the social power of the other leaders because of the over- 
whelming defeat, the dislocation of the social relations 




The Lowndes Mansion, Charleston. 
A famous and typical Southern City Home. 



384 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



between the slaveholcling and the poor whites and the 
Negroes, and the catastrophes in every line of agriculture 
and commerce, had left the South completely disorganized, 
and without the men to effect a re-organization. This was 
the opportunity of the " carpet-baggers " in politics. 

§ 25. The Compromises and the Reconstruction Acts. 
The Reconstruction Acts undid the work of the Com- 
promises in the period when the South was supreme in the 
National Government, controlling Congress and naming 




Alton, Illinois, 1850. 
Here Lincoln and Douglas met in 1858 in their seventh and last debate. 

the Presidents. The first great Act that dealt with slavery 
was the Northwest Ordinance, 1787, establishing freedom 
beyond the Ohio. The next was the Missouri Compromise, 
dealing with the lands farther West, establishing freedom 
north of 36° 30', except in Missouri. Then came the Com- 
promise of 1850, by which the Pacific Coast was made free- 
labor, but the Territories were left in doubt ; while by the 
Fugitive Slave Act all the North was turned into a police 



PROGRESS OF SLAVERY. 385 



guard for Southern property in men. Then came the 
Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854, not a Compromise even in 
name, but substantially an establishment of the slave- 
holder's right to hold slaves even in the free region of the 
Missouri Compromise. 

Next came the Dred Scott decision, 1857, declaring that 
the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, and that 
residence in a free State could not make a Negro slave a 
citizen. Then occurred, too, the great Lincoln-Douglas de- 
bates, almost as important as any Act of Congress, for 
they greatly influenced public opinion, which makes and 
unmakes Congresses. In these debates Lincoln declared 
that the South was ready for 'the next and last step, to 
secure the right of a slaveholder to keep his slaves even 
in free States ; that is, to spread slavery into Maine and 
into California at the wish of any slaveholder. This was 
indeed the logical outcome of the Fugitive Slave Acts. It 
was from this that the great War saved us. 

It may be well to notice here how unwise were those 
who counseled Lincoln to say to the Confederate States, 
" Wayward sisters, depart in peace." As Patrick Henry 
had said a century before, " Gentlemen cry, « Peace, peace,' 
when there is no peace." There was no great mountain 
barrier between the slave South and the free North. In no 
age of the world, least of all in an age of steam and steel, 
of type and gunpowder, of electricity and enlightenment, 
would a mere surveyor's line, or even a river, effectively 
hold apart civilizations so antagonistic. John Brown raids, 
Lovejoy murders, Burns captures, Garrison abolition peri- 
odicals, and a thousand " underground railroads " would 
have made this Continent a furious bedlam. And in the 



886 POLITICAL PBOGRESS OE THE NATIOtf. 



sum total the bloodshed and the ruin would have been far 
worse than even the immense and frightful operations of 
the tragedy of the War of Secession, by which human 
liberty was redeemed at awful price. 

It is not for us who live in the light of the twentieth 
century to condemn our ancestors, South or North, for their 
course during the unfortunate years from 1820 to 1860, 
when slavery was growing so steadily. In its origin, slavery 
was an American, not a Southern, institution. Most of the 
unholy .profits of the African slave-trade before 1808 were 
reaped by New England and New York, rather than by Vir- 
ginia and South Carolina. Climate and invention, not desire, 
fastened slavery upon the South, and climate, not conscience, 
released the North from its thralls that bound the white 
master as surely as the black slave. 

The later history of the South has demonstrated the eco- 
nomic as well as the ethical superiority of the capital-and- 
labor system over the master-and-slave system. Southern 
wealth is now both agricultural and industrial. The general 
intelligence and morality of both races have improved in 
the forty years since 1865. 

§ 24. The First Transcontinental Railroad was Completed. 

In 1869 there was completed the first railroad uniting 
the Atlantic sea-coast with the Pacific. Its construction 
was made possible by large grants from Congress, both of 
lands and bonds. The railroad was built in two sections 
beginning at Omaha and San Francisco. It had been begun 
as a war-measure, in 1862, to hold the Pacific States in the 
Union. Its completion was an engineering triumph, rank- 
ing with the Atlantic Cable successfully laid in 1866, and 
was then and is yet of great political importance/ for with 



A GREAT RAILROAD. 



387 



other transcontinental lines it literally " ties f ' the Pacific 
Coast with the Mississippi Valley across the wide and high 
Rocky Mountains. The Pacific Railroad made Bennett, the 
engineer, and Huntington, Stanford, Crocker, and Mackaye, 




Completion of the Pacific Railroad, 1869, near Great Salt Lake, Utah. Via this line, which 
crosses nine different mountain ranges, it is 3,400 miles from New York to San Francisco. 

the business men, almost as famous as Cyrus W. Field, the 
heroic financier of the great Cable. 

In politics, because of their extreme importance in 
transportation, — even the Mississippi is of scarcely more 
importance, — these railroad corporations became the great 
controlling influence in the Pacific and Rocky Mountain 
States. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What was the ability of Abraham Lincoln as a politician ? 

2. What was his character ? 

3. Discuss Lincoln's understanding of the North and of the South. 



388 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



4. What was the degree of his success.? 

5. Discuss the rallying of the North to the Union cause. 

6. What was the course of the border slave States ? 

7. Compare the strength of the North and of the South in numbers of 
men. 

8. Compare the financial resources of the United States and of the 
Confederate States. 

9. Discuss the sacrifices of the South in the War. 

10. Give an account of the "Trent Affair." 

11. Explain the relation of the battle at the Antietam creek to the 
Emancipation Proclamation. 

12. What was the attitude of Great Britain to the United States ? 

13. In what way did Great Britain help the Confederate States ? 

14. Were the people of the North unanimous for the war ? Explain 
the opposition. 

15. What was the effect of Lincoln's re-election upon the enlistments 
in Union armies ? 

16. Give an account of great events in April, 1865. 

17. In what condition was the country when Johnson became Presi- 
dent ? 

18. Discuss Johnson's record, character, and ability. 

19. What was the purpose of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Con- 
stitution ? 

20. Who were the " Carpet-Baggers " ? 

21. Discuss the Reconstruction policy. 

22. What was the question at issue in the matter of Johnson's im- 
peachment ? 

23. What was the end of the Empire of Maximilian in Mexico ? 

24. What ex-Confederate States were not yet in the Union in 1868 ? 

25. What was the purpose of the Ku-Klux Klan secret societies ? 

26. When was the first successful Atlantic Cable laid ? 

27. Trace in order the Reconstruction Acts and Amendments. 

28. Discuss the development of slavery. 

29. Trace in order the Compromises regarding slavery. 

30. Discuss the completion of the first transcontinental railroad. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries: Vol. IV., pp. 155 to end. Lincoln; Secession; 
'The Confederate Government ; Volunteering ; Loyal Sentiment in the 



IN WAR TIME AND AFTER. 389 



North ; Life in the South during the War ; Life in the Union Army ; 
Maximilian's Empire ; Emancipation; Lee's Surrender ; the South 
at the End of the War ; Reconstruction ; the Ku-Ivlux Klan ; Presi- 
dential Elections ; Pacific Railroad ; etc., etc. 

Schouler's History of the United States : Vol. VI. 

Rhodes's History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850. 

MacDonald's Select Charters : Vol. II. The Emancipation Proclamations, 
etc., etc. 

Stan wood's History of Presidential Elections: Lincoln's Elections. 

Old South Leaflets : Emancipation Proclamation ; Lincoln's Gettysburg 
Address. 

Wilson's Division and Reunion, pp. 213-272. 

Hinsdale's How to Study and Teach History: Chap. XXII. The Slave 
Power. 

Hart's Source Readers: Vol. IV. Civil War Period. 

Annual Report American Historical Association, 1900, pp. 467-498. Mili- 
tary Government in the South during the War of Secession, pp. 88- 
103 ; Missouri in the War. 

American Historical Review, October, 1902 : Lincoln as a Politician. 

Smith's Political History of Slavery : Vol. II. 

Burgess's Civil War and Constitution: 2 vols. 

Burgess's Reconstruction. 

Dunning' s Peconstruction. 

Schwab's Financial History of the Confederacy. 

Greeley's The American Conflict. 

McCulloch's Men and Measures of Half a Century. 

Brown's The Lower South in American History. 

Buchanan's My Own Story. 

Davis's The Confederacy. 

Storey's Charles Sumner. 

Adams's Charles Francis Adams. 

Curtis' s The True Abraham Lincoln, 

Jones's School History of the United States (from the Southern point of view). 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION. 

1. Comparison of Washington and Lincoln. 

2. The Attack on Fort Sumter and its Effect upon Northern Senti- 
ment : The Southern Justification of the Attack. 

3. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States. 

4. Southern Leaders : Benjamin, Stevens, Toombs. 



390 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



5. The War Democrats. 

6. Hugh McCulloch and the National Bank System. 

7. Confederate Paper Money. 

8. The Ruin of the South by the War. 

9. The " Trent Affair " and Lincoln's Prompt Surrender. 

10. The Members of Lincoln's Emancipation Cabinet ; especially Stan- 
ton, Secretary of War. 

11. Adams, the American Minister at the Court of St. James, Great 
Britain. 

12. The Negroes as Faithful Servants of their Old Masters ; their Rev- 
erence for Abraham Lincoln. 

13. Czar Alexander I. 

14. Draft Riots in New York City and Elsewhere. 

15. The Great War Governors of the Union States : Andrews of Mas- 
sachusetts, etc.; State Volunteer Regiments. 

16. The Alabama and her History. 

17. Beecher at Liverpool. 

18. Lincoln and the Pardoning Power. 

19. Comparison of the Early Lives of Lincoln and Johnson. 

20. The Impeachment of President Johnson. 

21. Pensions to Soldiers and to the Dependent Relatives of the Slain. 

22. The Carpet-B aggers and Carpet-Bag Government. 

23. The Empire of Maximilian and his Tragic and Undeserved Death. 

24. The Purchase of Alaska. 

25. Cyrus W. Field and the Laying of the Atlantic Cables ; the Assist- 
ance given by Peter Cooper ; the Great Eastern. 

26. The Pacific Railroad. 

27. Political Reasons for issuing the Emancipation Proclamation. 

28. Comparison of the " Democracy " of Jefferson, Jackson, and 
Lincoln. 

29. The Influence of Slavery upon Virginia. 

30. The View of Slavery held by the Southern Mountain Whites. 

IMPORTANT DATES. 

1861-65. Abraham Lincoln is the sixteenth President. 

1862. September. The preliminary Proclamation. 

1863. The Emancipation Proclamation. 

1865-69. Andrew Johnson is the seventeenth President. 

1866. Laying of the successful Atlantic Cable. 

1869. Completion of the first Transcontinental Railroad. 









HARMONY AND PROSPERITY. 



391 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE GROWTH OF HARMONY AND OF PROSPERITY. 



1. 



Ulysses S. Grant, 1869-1877. 

The Geneva Tribunal Awarded Damages to the United 
States in the Matter of the Alabama Claims. 



During the Civil War there had been various disputes 
with Great Britain. These were not yet settled in 1869. 
The chief dispute was regarding 
compensation for the destruction 
of American vessels by Confed- 
erate cruisers built and fitted out 
in British ports. The Alabama 
Claims were referred to a Court of 
Arbitration consisting of one dele- 
gate each from the United States, 
Great Britain, Italy, Switzerland, 
and Brazil. The Court in the 
Geneva Award held that the 
British Government had not shown 
due diligence in preventing the 
Alabama and other Confederate 
cruisers from being fitted out, and 
awarded the United States fifteen and a half million dollars. 
This seems like a great sum, but it by no means repre- 
sented the total damage done. 

§ 2. There -was Dissatisfaction with the Government. 

Unfortunately, many government officials, both munici- 
pal and national, in the years since the war, had become 
extremely corrupt. There were scandals in the Post Office 




Ulysses S. Grant. 

Born, 1822; died, 1885. 

Lieutenant Mexican War : 

Lieutenant General : President. 



392 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



Department and elsewhere. What was known as the 
"Tweed Ring" flourished in New York. At the close of 
Grant's first Administration there was much dissatisfaction 
among the people over this corruption in government. 

Grant's opponent was Horace Greeley, the great editor of 
" The New York Tribune," who had not had any previous 
experience in government. Unfortunately for himself, and 
for the principles that he represented, people generally 
regarded him as brilliant and philanthropic, but incompetent. 

Grant had given evidence that, as the wiser people had 
feared four years before, he was very deficient in the knowl- 
edge of men's characters that is essential to the Chief 
Executive of this great nation. Designing politicians were 
deceiving him successfully. However, his war-record, and 
his well-deserved reputation for personal integrity, gave him 
a half-million majority of votes at the polls, and a great 
majority in the Electoral College. 

§ 3. The Government Planned to Resume Specie Payments. 
During the War of Secession the National Government 
had stopped paying its debts in gold and silver, and had 
used irredeemable paper money instead. Such money has 
no real value. Its issue had seemed necessary during the 
War. In 1875 Congress passed, and the President ap- 
proved, a law to the effect that, beginning January 1, 1879, 
the Government would pay all its obligations in coin. This 
greatly improved the national credit. 

§ 4. The Centennial Exposition was Held in 1876. 
In Grant's second term there was held a splendid World's 
Exposition at Philadelphia to celebrate the hundredth anni- 
versary of the Declaration of Independence. 



THE HAYES-TILDEX CONTEST. 393 



§ 5. The Election of 1876 Tested the Good Judgment and 
the Peacefulness of the American People. 

The election of 1876 was as important a test of the 
sound judgment and the self-restraint of the American 
people as any that has ever taken place. The Republicans 
had nominated Hayes, an ex-Governor of Ohio, and a Union 
General, and the Democrats, Tilden, an ex-Governor of 
New York. The latter was an eminent lawyer and states- 
man, who had successfully attacked the corrupt " Tweed 
Ring " in New York. In the popular vote he had a 
quarter of a million plurality over Hayes. 

The election in the Electoral College finally turned on 
the votes of three Southern States, — Louisiana, Florida, 
and South Carolina, — and of one Northern State, — Ore- 
gon. From the Southern States two sets of certificates had 
been returned for the Electors. If all the Electoral votes 
of the four States in dispute should be counted for the 
Republican candidate, he would be elected by a majority 
of one, otherwise the Democratic candidate would be suc- 
cessful. The question was as to who should do the 
counting ; and it was finally agreed to appoint an Elec- 
toral Commission, to consist of five Senators, five Repre- 
sentatives, and five Justices of the United States Supreme 
Court. Unfortunately, the Commission, which consisted 
of eight Republicans and seven Democrats, voted eight to 
seven on every issue. 

The actual merits of the dispute are very difficult to 
discern, but at this distance from the event it seems 
probable that Tilden ought to have received a majority 
of the Electoral votes. On the other hand, it is quite 
certain that if the Negroes of the South had been allowed 



394 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



to vote freely, the Republican vote in the Southern States 
would have been much heavier. It also seems no longer 
questionable that both sides were guilty of bribery of 
voters. The people received the decision calmly. The 
result in general showed how thoroughly trained this nation 
is in self-control. In some other countries the disappoint- 
ment on the one side, and the elation over victory on the 
other, would almost certainly have resulted in civil war. 




Rutherford Birchard Hayes. 
Born, I 822 ; died, 1893. 
General: Governor of Ohio: 
President. 




Samuel Jones Tilden. 
Born, 1814; died, 1886. 
Governor of New York : 

Jurist. 



Rutherford B. Hayes, 1877-1881. 

§ 6. Hayes was without Effective Support in Congress. 

New issues were now coming before the American peo- 
ple. It became apparent that the civil service ought to be 
reformed, the tariff revised, and specie payments resumed 
by the United States Treasury. President Hayes was at 
a great disadvantage, since the House of Representatives 



FEDERAL TROOPS WITHDRAWN. 395 



was largely Democratic, and after 1878 even the Senate 
was Democratic. The period of the Administration was 
marked generally by debate rather than by decisive action. 

§ 7. Federal Troops were "Withdrawn from the Southern 

States. 

Hayes had something of the political tact of Lincoln, 
and sympathized with his views upon Southern questions. 
One of his first acts was to withdraw Federal troops from 
South Carolina and elsewhere, on the ground that the peo- 
ple intended to keep the peace and to obey the National as 
well as the State laws, and needed no force to compel them. 
This act was directly counter to the policy of reconstruc- 
tion by military force and marked its end. It led to better 
feeling between North and South, and assisted the Southern 
whites in regaining control of government. 

§ 8. The Struggle Began between Capital and Labor. 

There had been in 1873 a financial panic, followed by a 
long period of business depression. In 1877 there occurred 
a series of strikes and riots in various parts of the country, 
especially in connection with the railroads. The cause was 
reduction of wages. At Pittsburg several million dollars' 
worth of property was destroyed. The riotous wage-earners 
were discontented with their lot in life, and tried to better 
their condition by violence. To suppress these riots and 
to break up the mobs, both State militia and Federal troops 
were required. Such was the beginning of violence over 
the question of capital and labor that is constantly becoming 
more and more important, and corresponds now in American 
history with the slavery question as it stood in the 
eighteenth century. No man can foresee to what the 
struggle may lead in the twentieth century. 



396 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



§9- 



Coin Took the Place of Paper Money in Payment of 
National Debts. 



The successful resumption of specie payments in 1879 
was the final great achievement of Hayes's Administration. 
It restored our credit as a debt-paying people. Our 
" greenbacks," made during the War " legal tender " for 
debts, at once went to par with coin. Gold no longer 
commanded a premium, and business went on more smoothly. 

James A. Garfield, 1881. 

§ 10. Garfield Fell a Victim to Office-Seekers. 
In 1880 James A. Garfield of Ohio had been elected 
President, in opposition to Winfield Scott Hancock of Penn- 
sylvania. Garfield was a man of great experience in public 

affairs, and had won an excellent 
education by his own efforts. He 
had been a general in the Union 
army during the War. Hancock 
had made a splendid record as a 
general in the War. Garfield's ma- 
jority, though large in the Elec- 
toral College, in the popular vote 
was only a few thousand. 

July 2, 1881, Garfield was shot 
by a political " crank " whose dis- 
turbed mental condition was 
largely the result of the pernicious 
office-seeking system of our gov- 
ernment and of bitter political 
partisanship. He died of the wound September 19, after a 
brave fight for life. This murder resulted in a popular agi- 
tation that greatly promoted civil service reform. 




James Abram Garfield. 

Born, 183 I ; killed, 1881 . 

President : General : Senator 

elect from Ohio. 



THE CHINESE EXCLUDED. 



397 



Chester A. Arthur, 1881-1885. 

§ 11. Arthur Made a Successful President. 
Arthur, who had been a Republican politician in New 
York State up to his election as Vice-President, gave the 
country one of the quietest and 
most successful Administrations 
in its history ; but he was not 
considered for the Presidency in 
1881. His failure to secure even 
the Republican nomination, as 
Hayes had failed to secure it in 
1880, shows one of the weak fea- 
tures of our party system, its un- 
patriotic self-seeking factionalism. 
The important political events of 
his Administration were a civil 
service reform law, making merit 
the qualification for office, a lower 
tariff on imports, and the total exclusion of the Chinese. 




Chester Alan Arthur. 

Born, 1830; died, 1886. 

President. 



Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889. 

§ 12. The New President was Progressive. 

In the election of 1885 James G. Blaine of Maine, a 
great orator and a brilliant political leader, was the Repub- 
lican candidate against Grover Cleveland, the efficient Gov- 
ernor of New York State, the Democratic candidate. Blaine 
represented traditional Republicanism, with its high tariffs 
for the protection of American manufactures and its sup- 
port of the interests of the industrial classes. 

The election was extremely close ; a change of less than 



398 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 




six hundred votes in New York State alone would have 
elected Blaine. As it was, Cleveland, representing a new 
movement in American politics, looking to economy, to 

lower tariffs, and less government- 
interference in business affairs, 
was successful. An Act was 
passed fixing the Presidential 
succession as follows : viz., Vice- 
President, Secretary of State, Sec- 
retary of the Treasury, Secretary 
of War, Attorney-General, Secre- 
tary of the Navy, Postmaster-Gen- 
eral, and Secretary of the Interior. 
The Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission was established, looking 
to regulation of the railroads, 
which were unfairly charging va- 
rious freight rates for the same 
distances. It was partly by means of such discrimination 
between competitors that the immense business of the 
Standard Oil Company was being built up. 

The first Administration of Grover Cleveland resulted in 
an improved civil service in our government, and in a slight 
revision of the tariff. He made a unique record as Presi- 
dent by vetoing one-eighth of all the bills passed by Con- 
gress, objecting consistently to private pension legislation. 
He also advocated a much lower tariff, in the direction of 
free trade. The President, with his maxim " Public office 
is a public trust," was not re-elected in 1888, owing to 
unpopularity within his own party, for whose politicians 
he was altogether too progressive. 



Grover Cleveland. 

Born, 1837. 

President : Governor of 

New York. 



HARMONS AND PROSPERITY. 399 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What was the Geneva Award ? 

2. Compare Greeley and Grant as candidates for the Presidency. 

3. Discuss "specie payment." 

4. Discuss the Hayes-Tilden controversy. 

5. What action did Hayes take with reference to the South ? 

0. Discuss the Pittsburg riots. 

7. What was the effect of Garfield's death upon civil service reform ? 

8. What were the important features of Arthur's Administration ? 

9. Discuss the Cleveland-Blaine campaign. 

10. What were important features of Cleveland's Administration ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries. Vol. IV., pp. 518-323. 529-538. 542-546, 550-556. 

Andrew's Modern United States History. (Last Quarter Century). 

Blaine's Twenty Tears of Congress. 

Stanwood's History of Presidential Elections. 

Wilson's Division and Reunion, pp. 273, et seq. 

Consult Larned's History for Ready Reference. Alabama Claims, Vol. 1. 

and Presidential Elections, Vol. 5. 
Papers and Messages of the Presidents. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1 . Eorce Bills (to compel the Southern States to let Negroes vote, etc. ) . 

2. Credit Mobilier (plans to finance the building of Western Rail- 
roads). 

3. Panic of 1873. 

4. Sioux War, Sitting Bull, Death of General Custer, June 25, 1876. 

5. The Parmer's Alliance. 

6. The Demonetization of Silver, 1873. 

7. "Mugwumps," (Independent Republicans opposed to Blaine). 

8. Bering Sea Controversies relating to Seal Eisheries, etc. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1869-1873. Grant, the eighteenth President. 
1873-1881. Hayes, the nineteenth President. 
1881. Garfield, the twentieth President. 
1881-1885. Arthur, the twenty-first President. 
1885-1889. Cleveland, the twenty-second President. 



400 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



CHAPTER VII. 



COMMERCIAL CHANGES AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION. 



Benjamin Harrison, 1889-1893. 



§ 1. Congress Tried to Maintain a High Price for Silver by- 
Government Purchases. 

Cleveland's successor, Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, 
grandson of William Henry Harrison, President in 1841, 
was an admirable President, but his Administration was 

unsuccessful. In 1873 silver 
had been demonetized ; that is, 
it was no longer to be taken for 
gold at a fixed rate of value. 
This tended to reduce its value 
in gold. Further, there had 
been discovered immense de- 
posits of silver ore, and new and 
cheaper processes for reducing 
the ore and getting out the pure 
metal had been invented. This 
made silver still cheaper. To 
offset this lowering of the value 
of silver, our Government for 
some years had been buying silver bullion. In 1890 Con- 
gress voted to buy every month four and a half million 
ounces of bullion, and to issue silver certificates for it. 




Benjamin Harrison. 
Born, I 833 ; died, I 901 . 
General: U.S. Senator: President 
Jurist. 



§ 2. The Protective Tariff was Made Still Higher. 
In 1890 Congress passed the McKinley Tariff Act, which 
raised the duties on imported goods much higher than they 



UNWISE LEGISLATION. 401 



had been before. This was in the interest of the manufac- 
turers and of the wage-earners who were engaged in the 
great and growing industries of the country. Its result 
was to raise the prices of manufactured goods. 

Grover Cleveland, 1893-1897. 

§ 3. Hard Times Made the President Unpopular. 

In the election of 1892 Harrison was opposed by ex- 
President Cleveland, again the candidate of the Democratic 
pirty, and by James B. Weaver, ex-Governor of Iowa, who 
represented a new party, the Populist. This new party 
advocated government ownership of the railroads and tele- 
graph lines, a national tax on incomes, and the free and un- 
limited coinage of silver at the ratio of sixteen ounces of 
silver to one ounce of gold, and denounced the old parties 
as corrupt political machines. 

In the election, Cleveland, advocating lower tariffs, was 
successful. His second term was even less popular than 
his first. In 1893 a commercial panic set in, caused largely 
by the Government's hoarding of silver. An unsuccessful 
tariff bill lowering and modifying all duties was passed in 
1894. An income tax of 2 per cent upon the excess of 
incomes over $4,000 was a feature of this Wilson Tariff 
Act, but was pronounced unconstitutional by the United 
Supreme Court. Cleveland displayed greater zeal for the 
national welfare than was satisfactory to his party, and 
failed to have its support at the close of his term. His 
Administration, unfortunately, had to borrow immense sums 
to carry on the affairs of the Government for want of an 
adequate income and because of drains upon the Treasury 
due to forced purchases of silver. 



402 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



§ 4. The Columbian Exposition was Held at Chicago, 1893, 
in a Period of Great Commercial Distress. 

In 1893 our country celebrated the four hundredth anni- 
versary of the discovery of America by Columbus, holding 
a great World's Fair at Chicago. This Exposition was an 
artistic triumph, and showed the marvelous progress of our 
country and of the world. 

While it was being held, our country was at the beginning 
of perhaps the worst and certainly the most extensive 
" panic " and period of business depression in its history. 
This was caused by the derangement of our monetary affairs 
from the Government's forced purchases of silver. " Hard 
times " lasted for several years. 











,..., ""'"' ~ l.: ". ■ _; _i ." . ' V....VV.:.- 




Court of Honor, Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. 

§ 5. Foreign Affairs were Managed Vigorously. 
In 1893 Cleveland greatly offended popular sentiment in 
this country by refusing to accept the proffered annexation 
of Hawaii. But in 1895 he aroused wild enthusiasm by 






VENEZUELA. 403 



vigorously insisting upon Great Britain's submitting her 
claims to land in South America to arbitration. In a mes- 
sage emphasizing the Monroe Doctrine he asserted that the 
dispute of Great Britain with Venezuela was a matter for 
the judgment of the world, not for trial at arms. Cleve- 
land's defiance of Great Britain, warning her from any 
attempt by force of arms to settle the dispute about terri- 
tory upon the American continents astonished Europe and 
delighted all America. 

§ 6. The High Protective Tariff Principle and a " Sound 
Money " System were Indorsed at the Polls. 

The campaign of 1896 was remarkable. The Democratic 
Convention at Chicago adopted a very radical platform and 
nominated William J. Bryan of Nebraska for the Presidency. 
The Populists indorsed this nomination. Bryan advocated 
the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1, and many 
governmental changes, and made the greatest oratorical 
campaign in the history of the country. The Republican 
candidate was William McKinley of Ohio, an advocate of a 
high protective tariff and of " sound money," who was sup- 
ported by the substantial business interests of the country. 

The sudden prominence of Bryan as the leader of a great 
century-old party was the result of a single brilliant speech 
in the Convention. This speech attacked gold monometal- 
lism as the basis of our national currency upon the ground 
that it limits the money in circulation and injures the wage- 
earning classes. " Bryanism " split the Democratic party 
into two divisions, the larger of which supported Bryan, 
while the smaller. division of "gold-Democrats" nominated 
another candidate. This split in the Democratic party re- 
sulted in the election of McKinley. 



404 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 




The Dewey Arch, New York City, to celebrate the victory at Manila. 



TEREITORIAL EXPANSION. 



405 



William McKinlby, 1897-1901, 




§ 7. A New Tariff Law was Adopted. 

The first act of President McKinley was to call Congress 
together in special session to 
repeal the unwise tariff of 1894, 
and to adopt the Dingley Tariff 
Act, increasing and adjusting 
all duties on imported goods. 
This was immediately beneficial 
to the business of the country. 

§ 8. We Gained Islands in the 
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 

In 1898, under the compul- 
sion of Spanish cruelties in 
Cuba and of American public 
sentiment, war was declared 
against Spain. As the cry went 
up in 1836 and 1846, " Remember the Alamo," so in 1898 
a cry went up, " Remember the Maine," for in February 
a war-cruiser of ours in Havana harbor was blown up 
with a loss of two hundred sixty-six men. In the follow- 
ing month Congress appropriated 150,000,000 for war 
purposes, and in April war was formally declared. On 
sea and land, our forces were so amazingly successful, 
that the fighting was over within a few months, and our 
country was in possession of Porto Rico, Cuba, and the 
Philippines. 

The entire expense of the War of 1898 was $200,000,- 
000. By two treaties Spain ceded to us Porto Rico, and 
at a price to us of $20,000,000 the Philippine Islands. 



William McKinley. 

Born, I 843 ; assassinated, 1901. 

President : Governor of Ohio. 



406 



POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



Arrangements were also made for the independence of Cuba 
under the protectorate of the United States. 

Thus ended the dominion of Spain in the New World, 
founded by Columbus in 1492, extended by Cortez, Pizarro, 
and Menendez in the following hundred years, and greatly 




Havana Harbor, Cuba. 

reduced in the period of the Napoleonic Wars, when all 
South America went free. 

§ 9. "We Became Friendly with Great Britain. 

A pleasant feature of the Spanish-American War was 
that British sentiment supported our course. This led to a 
great change in American public opinion, which partly be- 
cause of the Revolutionary War but more because of the 
British support of the slavery cause in the War of Seces- 
sion, had always been unfriendly to Great Britain as was 
made plain at the time of Cleveland's Venezuela message. 

Upon the Continent of Europe there was a good deal of 
criticism of our attack upon Spain, which our voluntary 
surrender of Cuba and our generous payment for the Phil- 
ippines did much to correct. 



IMPERIALISM. 



407 




Honolulu. Hawaii 



§ 10. The Hawaii Islands Became American Territory. 

In 1898 we annexed the Hawaii Islands, at the request 
of their people. Since then, by Act of Congress, the Islands 
have been organized as a Territory of the United States. 

§ 11. An Exciting Oratorical Campaign Took Place in 1900. 

In 1900 McKinley was re-elected in a campaign in which 
he was again opposed by William J. Bryan of Nebraska, 
Democrat and Populist, who advocated the free coinage of 
silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 with gold, and opposed " im- 
perialism, " as the policy of holding colonial possessions was 
called. Bryan again proved himself a Avonderful cam- 
paigner in the number and persuasiveness of his speeches, 
winning favor upon the platform scarcely less remarkable 
than had followed Clay and Blaine in their greatest days. 
Governor Roosevelt of New York, Republican candidate for 
Vice-President, also made many notable speeches. 



408 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



§ 12. America Became an International Leader. 

Meantime there arose in China an insurrection of the 
people against foreigners. To protect their citizens America, 
Great Britain, Germany, France, and Japan sent military and 
naval forces. Peking, the Capital of China, was taken. In 
the final settlement American diplomacy was recognized as 
far more successful than that of any other nation. These 
troubles in the far East lasted throughout the year 1900. 

§ 13. The President "Was Assassinated at the Pan-American 
Exposition, Buffalo, September, 1901. 

In 1901 there was organized, in the interest of mutual 
sympathy, an exposition of the products of all nations upon 
the two American continents. This was to carry out the 
general plans of the Pan-American Congress held in Wash- 
ington in 1889 under the leadership of James G. Blaine, 
who was Secretary of State in Harrison's Administration. 

This Fair was proving successful, when the country was 
shocked by the assassination upon its grounds of President 
McKinley, when making an official visit. The assassin was 
a foreign-born citizen, not trained in our public schools, and 
crazed with the idea that all governments injure the poor. 

Of American Presidents, there have died in office two 
from overwork, — Harrison and Taylor ; and three by the 
hands of murderers, — Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley. Of 
the three murdered, each was a man of the people, who had 
won his own education, whose character was admirable, and 
whose manners were democratic and extremely cordial to all 
his fellow-citizens. It is noteworthy also that the assassin 
of each was either a " crank " or a lunatic. Such are the 
labors and the dangers of the highest office in our Nation, 



THE PHILIPPINES. 



409 



Theodore Roosevelt, 1901- 



§ 14. The New President is a Scholar, Politician, and Soldier. 

McKinley's successor was his Vice-President, Theodore 
Roosevelt, a hero of the Spanish War, and Governor of 
New York at the time of his elec- 
tion. He was the first ' man to 
come to the Presidency with fame 
in literature, for he was the author 
of many books of history, criticism, 
and adventure. His preparation 
in scholarship was extensive and 
thorough like that of the early 
Virginia and Massachusetts Presi- 
dents. Like them, too, he had 
benefited by much previous expe- 
rience in governmental affairs. 

§ 15. The Philippine Islands 
Accepted American Civilization. 

After the Americans took pos- 
session of the Philippine Islands, the insurrection and 
fighting that had been raging there against Spanish control, 
turned against us. At first our control was violently 
resented. Warfare continued until the fall of 1902, when 
it ceased. Meantime our Government had established peace 
in the Islands, had encouraged trade and industry, and had 
placed thousands of American school-teachers in the Phil- 
ippine cities, towns, villages, and hamlets. The administra- 
tion of Governor William H. Taft met with the constant 
support of the best people in the Islands, — American, 
Spanish, and Filipino. 




Theodore Roosevelt. 

Born, 1858. 

President : Governor of New York 

Soldier : Historian. 



410 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



§ 16. Cuba Became an Independent Republic. 
In 1902, under the protection of the American Govern- 
ment, Cuba became an independent nation, and set up a 
republican form of government. 

$ 17. A Great Industrial "War was Settled by the President's 
Commission. 

The great struggle between capital and labor, which 
began with railroad riots in 18TT, had continued more or 
less constantly until 1902. There had been strikes, "boy- 
cotts," lockouts, picketings, and " blacklistings." On the 
one side the capitalists were constantly organizing greater 
and greater corporations, and were trying to increase profits 
and to secure larger dividends. On the other side, the 
laborers, especially the skilled workers, were organizing 
trade unions and amalgamations of unions, and were trying 
to increase wages and to reduce the hours of labor. 

In 1902 the mine-workers of Pennsylvania struck for 
higher wages and fewer hours of work. The mine-owners 
would not yield. Goal was no longer produced. Finally, 
both sides agreed to arbitration by a commission to be 
appointed by the President. In 1903 this Commission made 
its report^ which, on the whole, was favorable to the wage- 
earners. This mode of settling an industrial war was new 
in American history. Hitherto, the National Government 
had never taken part in such struggles further than to send 
Federal troops when necessary in order to quell rioting. 
§ 18. A Department of Commerce was Created. 

The business development of the country was reflected 
in the creation, in 1903, of a Department of Commerce, 
with a Secretary as its head to represent it in the Cabinet 
of the President. There had been added, in 1889, in 



AN ISTHMIAN CANAL. 



411 



Harrison's Administration a Department of Agriculture. 
There are now nine Departments, — State, War. Interior, 
Navy, Post Office, Attorney-General, Treasury, Agriculture, 
and Commerce. 

§ 19. Discussions over an Isthmian Canal and Other 
Economic Matters. 

An important discussion of the present Administration 

has related to the questions of the building of a canal across 




The Capitol of the United States at Washington. 

the Isthmus of Panama or through Nicaragua. In order to 
build this canal it became necessary to secure the abroga- 
tion of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty of 1854, between Great 
Britain and the United States, by which it was agreed that 
the two nations should jointly control any Isthmian Canal. 
Treaty negotiations were entered into by our Government 



412 POLITICAL PBOGBESS OF THE NATION. 



with the United States of Colombia which includes the State 
of Panama at the Isthmus of Panama. No agreement has 
yet been reached permitting our nation to finish there the 
great canal begun by the French engineer, De Lesseps. 

In the summer and fall of 1902 the attention of the public 
was taken up with discussions over the " trusts." In 1897 
there had set in an amazing tide of business. Wealth 
grew fast, and became concentrated within the control of 
a comparatively few people who organized sjmdicates and 
" trusts." These latter are great corporations which have 
secured monopolies of the necessaries of life such as coal, 
sugar, meat, and oil. It was felt that their enormous wealth 
and their influence on American government in State and 
Nation prevents that equality of citizens before the law to 
which the people of the United States are dedicated. 

§ 20. A Surprising Defect of Our Civilization. 

In the summer of 1903 there occurred in various parts 
of our country, East and West, North and South, an un- 
usual number of social disturbances of the most repre- 
hensible sort, in which criminals and accused persons 
were killed by mobs without legal trial. These lynchings, 
however, declined in number later in the year. They 
showed that there is still much bitter feeling against the 
black race. 

The country was at the same time much agitated over 
questions of Negro education and of Negro suffrage. Many 
Southern States within recent years have by property, edu- 
cation, and birth qualifications, disfranchised many Negroes. 
In Virginia, by the new State Constitution, four-fifths of 
the Negroes became ineligible to vote. All these social 



THE DECLINE OF PROSPERITY. 413 



disturbances showed the needs of more popular enlighten- 
ment and of higher personal character in our citizenship. 

In this same period Booker T. Washington of Alabama 
and other Negro leaders did great service in the cause of 
the industrial education of the race. 
§ 21. The Decline of Commercial and Industrial Prosperity. 

In the history of our country there have been many 
vicissitudes of "good" and of "hard times." There 
were "hard times" after 1837, 1854, 1873, 1893. Panics 
appear periodically, and are caused by business men's over- 
confidence in pushing new enterprises. They borrow 
money at interest, and when the loans are due, must pay 
more than they borrow. So many of them do this that, 
sooner or later, the growing wealth of the country does 
not grow fast enough to pay the debts and the interest. 
Failures begin, and cause other failures. 

In the fall of 1893 a period of " hard times " set in. Rail- 
roads discharged some of their employes. Great corpo- 
rations became insolvent and passed into the hands of re- 
ceivers. The demand for laborers decreased and wages 
fell. These troubles affected politics and renewed the 
agitation of the questions of capital and labor, of the cor- 
porations and of the trades unions. 
§ 22. The Settlement of the Alaska-Canada Boundary Question. 

In 1903 Secretary of State John Hay, who had been 
Lincoln's private secretary, won another success in inter- 
national diplomacy. The true boundary between the United 
States and Canada, north and south, along the Pacific Coast, 
had never been satisfactorily determined. By an interna- 
tional tribunal of American, Canadian, and British commis- 
sioners, the claims of the United States were in the main 



414 POLITICAL PROGRESS OF THE NATION. 



upheld. The decision fixed the boundary along the line of 
mountain tops back of the sea-coast, depriving Canada of 
several desirable Pacific harbors. This decision was based 
upon early treaties between Russia and Great Britain. 

The Government also recognized the independence of the 
State of Panama that seceded from Colombia. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Discuss Government purchases of silver. 

2. What was the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890'? 

3. What were some of the principles of the Populist party in 1892? 

4. Compare Cleveland's two Administrations. 

5. Discuss the Wilson Tariff Act. 

6. Discuss the McKinley-Bryan campaign of 1896. 

7. What was the effect of the Dingley Tariff Act of 1897? 

8. Discuss the results of the War of 1898. 

9. What was the attitude of Europe toward us during the War? 

10. What is the present relation of the Hawaii Islands to our nation? 

11. Give an account of the troubles in China in 1900. 

12. Discuss the third assassination of a President. 

13. What was Roosevelt's preparation for the Presidency? 

14. Give an account of American civilization in the Philippines. 

15. What is the present relation of Cuba to this nation? 

16. Discuss the Coal Strike of 1902. 

17. Discuss the questions of Negro education and Xegro suffrage. 

18. Discuss recent history. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 
Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. IV., pp. 536-541, 561 et seq. 
International Year Books, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1902. 1903. 
Papers and Messages of the Presidents, Vols. X and XI. 
Andrews's History of the United States in our own Times. 
Adams's and Trent's History of the United States, pp. 494-535. 
Modern Magazines and Newspapers. 

IMPORTANT DATES. 

1889-1893. Harrison, the twenty-third President. 
1893-1897. Cleveland is again President. 
1897-1901. McKinley, the twenty-fourth President. 
1901-1903. Roosevelt, the twenty-fifth President. 



PART FIVE. 

OUR NATION'S WARS. 



CHAPTER I. 

CAUSES AND HISTORY OF OUR FIRST WARS, 1799-1815. 

§ 1. The Spirit of Liberty Caused a Revolution, from Whose 
Confusion Emerged the Great Soldier, Napoleon. 

The moving causes of 
our country's first two 
wars lie entirely outside 
of American history. In 
1789-1793 there raged 
in France against the 
government a great and 
terrible insurrection of 
the people that is com- 
monly known as the 
French Revolution. The 
ideas of some of its 
leaders were not unlike 
those of some of the 
leaders of the American 
Revolution of 1775-1783, 
and, indeed, of the Eng- 
lish Revolution of 1688. 

Napoleon Bonaparte. 
They believed in equal Emperor of the French. Born, 1761 ; died, 1823 
™~U.i- i i ••• Soldier; Statesman; Jurist; 

rights and opportunities Wh0 Sold t0 us Louisiana , 804i and caused 

for all. But the French the " Warof ,812 " 

415 




416 our nation's wars. 



Revolution was very different from the Revolutions in Eng- 
land and America. The oppression of the common people 
by the ruling classes in France was far worse than it had 
been in England, in 1688 and in America in 1775, and far 
more blood was shed and many more wicked things were 
done in France than in America, while the English Revo- 
lution was comparatively peaceful. A million citizens were 
slain in France. 

After this French Revolution, the soldier, Napoleon 
Bonaparte, an Italian from 'Corsica, made himself Emperor 
of the French, and was victorious in great wars in Western 
and Central Europe. He wished to subdue England also. 

§ 2. We -were Involved in the Napoleonic Wars. 

To injure England by injuring English trade Napoleon 
tried to prevent English vessels from going into the com- 
mercial ports of Europe, and from making voyages upon 
the high seas. England, in reply, tried to hurt the trade 
of France. In the wars between the great combatants, 
England and France, one the , greatest sea-power, and the 
other the greatest land-power, in Europe, all smaller 
nations became more or less involved. The United States, 
a neutral power, became involved because our merchants 
wished to trade with the nations of Europe, contrary to 
the orders of France and England. Yet our country did 
not wish to go actively into the wars to help either side. 

The French- Amebic an War, 1799-1800. 

§ 3. Our First War was on the Sea -with France. 

After the War of Independence, which -was a successful 
rebellion rather than an international war, the first conflict 



A NAVY, SMALL BUT ACTIVE. 417 



was with France. The cause was Napoleon's request for 
money and for other assistance in his wars against Great 
Britain. It was marked by two important events, the cap- 
tures of the French frigates, IS Insurgente and La Vengeance, 
by the frigate Constellation, Thomas Truxton, commander, 
in February, 1799, and in February, 1800. 

This was the same Truxton whose naval exploits in 
the War of Independence rivaled those of Paul Jones, 
and who in 1785 brought Benjamin Franklin home to 
America upon a long seven weeks' voyage. The aged 
statesman always said that it was Truxton's good company, 
and the good sea air together, that restored his worn-out 
body and weary mind to health and vigor, and enabled 
him to live long enough to see the new nation adopt its 
new Constitution. Truxton, like Jones and Franklin, was 
very friendly to France. But Napoleon was not France to 
them. These victories of Truxton convinced Napoleon 
that it was a mistake to ask America for loans : and led 
him in 1803 to sell Louisiana to strengthen our nation as a 
rival of England upon the seas. 

§ 4. Next "We Policed the Sea. 

The next international conflicts are scarcely to be called 
wars : they were rather the efforts of America to police the 
seas in the interests of honest commerce. There survived 
in North Africa from the fine old days of the pirates, free- 
booters, and buccaneers, several cities that systematically 
practised piracy on the high seas. These cities belonged 
to the so-called Barbary States, of which Algiers, Morocco, 
and Tripoli were then the most important. Between 1785 
and 1793, our government paid Algiers a million dollars 



418 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



to ransom our citizens. For the right to trade in the 
Mediterranean, we agreed to, and did, pay tribute to these 
" Corsair States " more or less regularly for several }^ears. 
In 1800 we began to fight them. By 1806 we had them 
finally defeated. In 1814 the last treaty necessary to dis- 
pose of this question of piracy was made. Through these 
years such men as Decatur, Bainbridge, Barron, Preble, 




An American Frigate in the Mediterranean. 

Morris, Hull, Macdonough, Lawrence, Barry, Stewart, and 
Somers, won fight after fight upon the seas and in the har- 
bors of the Barbary States, making their names immortal in 
the early story of the American navy. In these fights, the 
navy was trained for its brilliant success in the " War of 
1812." When all the battles were won, the Pope of the 
Roman Catholic Church gave to the United States high 
praise as the greatest peace-maker of the world for accom- 
plishing what no nation in Europe dared undertake, 



THE RUIX OF OUR SEA-TRADE. 419 



The settlement of the piracy difficulties and of those 
with England at almost the same time, marked the end of 
the first period of American history as a nation, which is 
characterized by very great interest in international affairs. 
From 1814 to 1898 Ave were almost entirely absorbed in 
domestic matters, and our wars were at home. 

British-American War. "War of 1812." 
(1812-1815.) 

§ 5. Our Commerce Was Nearly Destroyed by England and 

France. 

The " War of 1812 " is peculiar among wars from several 
facts. Neither the United States nor Great Britain wished to 
fight. Nothing in the controversy was settled by the treaty 
of peace. Only a very small part of the resources of either 
nation was involved in the War which added greatly to the 
reputation of one country without lowering that of the other. 
Hoping to prevent hostilities, Great Britain at the last 
moment revoked her odious Orders in Council, but the 
revocation came too late, and war had been declared by 
this country some weeks before the news of the revocation 
reached us. Napoleon with his Decrees, and England with 
her Orders, had nearly destroyed our merchant marine. 

In respect to the violation of the rights of neutrals and 
to the confiscation of ships, France was undoubtedly the 
worse offender. Napoleon had confiscated at one time 
110,000,000 worth of American ships and goods, hand- 
somely recouping what he called his " bad bargain " in the 
sale of Louisiana. If the United States had felt strong 
enough^ we would have fought them both, for our com- 
merce was as wheat ground between upper and nether 



420 our nation's wars. 



millstones. There was ample cause against either nation, 
but our case against England had the sentimental feature 
of the disgrace of allowing our seamen to be kidnapped 
from our merchant vessels and war-ships on the pretext 
that they were deserters from the British navy. 

England had a defence, not ethical but practical. Her 
war against the Napoleonic empire and ideas was a war in 
defence of Anglo-Saxon civilization. It was a war to the 
death in which she needed more sailors. 

§ 6. Though Not Born an American, a Man Can be Made 
an American. 

Not infrequently, the impressed American seamen were 
foreigners by birth, and no European nation was willing to 
accept the idea of " naturalization " by another country. In 
earlier centuries, renouncing allegiance had been a crime 
amounting to treason. 

" If Great Britain," exclaimed Clay in the House of 
Representatives, " desires a mark by which she can know 
her own subjects, let her give them an ear-mark. The 
colors that float from the masthead should be the creden- 
tials of our seamen." This eloquent saying amounted to 
a new principle of international law, that the right of one's 
country by adoption is superior to the right of the country 
of one's birth. 

§ 7. The "War Began on the Land with Disgrace to Our 

Arms. 

War was declared June 18, 1812. The United States 

was unprepared for carrying on hostilities in systematic or 

vigorous fashion, and the generals placed in charge of our 

first operations against Canada were, unfortunately, either 

figure-heads left over from the Revolutionary War, or 



LAND DEFEATS : SEA VICTORIES. 421 



politicians ignorant of the principles of warfare. General 
Hull opened hostilities with a brief and fruitless invasion of 
Canada from Detroit, and issued a grand proclamation to 
the inhabitants. He followed this up with a hasty retreat, 
which resulted in the surrender of Detroit with twenty-two 
hundred men to the British General Brock. This was the 
first of our mortifications, August 16, 1812. 

At the battle of Queenstown, two months later, General 
Van Rensselaer's army of six thousand men was defeated, 
and lost nine hundred prisoners. 

Then a certain General Alexander Smyth came to the 
front at Niagara, rallied the despondent troops, and issued 
a manifesto. " Come on, my heroes," he cried, " and when 
you attack the enemy's batteries let your rallying words be, 
' The cannon lost at Detroit or death ! ' ' The result was a 
foolish invasion of Canada, in which a few troops crossed the 
river, and then crossed back ; after which exploit the volun- 
teers were ordered to their homes, and the regulars into 
winter quarters. 

§ 8. We Won Brilliant Victories on the Ocean. 

In cheerful contrast with the story of the bad manage- 
ment of the land forces during the first year of the War, is 
the glorious record of the infant American navy. The 
Britannia that ruled the wave at this time received several 
severe shocks. 

On August 13, 1812, the frigate Essex, under Captain 
Porter, captured the British sloop Alert, in a few minutes' 
fight, without losing a man. A week later the frigate Con- 
stitution, commanded by Captain Hull, began her brilliant 
career with the destruction of the British frigate G-uerriere, 
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Guerriere lost one 



422 our, nation's wars. 



hundred men ; all her masts and rigging were shot away, 
and she sank shortly after. The Constitution had fourteen 
men killed and wounded, and was very little damaged. 

In October, the sloop Wasjj captured the British sloop 
Frolic; and in the same month the frigate United States, 
commanded by Captain Decatur, off the island of Madeira 
after a fight of an hour and a half, compelled the British 



Constitution (Old Ironsides) Destroying the Guerriere, August 19, 1812. 

frigate Macedonian to strike her colors. The Macedonian 
was dismasted and brought away as a prize. Her loss was 
one hundred and six men, that of the Americans twelve, 
and our ship was comparatively unharmed. 

December 29, 1812, the Constitution, under Captain Bain- 
bridge, made a total wreck of the British frigate Java 
off the coast of Brazil ; and in the following February the 
sloop Hornet, under Captain Lawrence, sank the British 



perry's great victory. 423 



brig Peacock. The Java lost two hundred and thirty men, 
and the Peacock went down with all on board. 

§ 9. In a Brave Fight We Lost a Fine Ship. 

Six contests and six defeats for the British navy in the 
first eight months of the war shattered the charm of 
invincibility which was supposed to hang about English ships 
of war. The real secret of the matter was that the Ameri- 
cans had better ships, better men, and better gunnery. 

An acute English captain, Philip Broke, commanding the 
frigate Shannon, took a lesson from the Americans, and 
trained his crew thoroughly. Then, sailing to Boston, he 
challenged the frigate Chesapeake, commanded by Captain 
Lawrence late of the Hornet, to a contest outside the 
harbor. Lawrence, with more courage than discretion, 
accepted the challenge. His crew was new and untrained. 
The Chesapeake was captured and taken to Halifax, with 
Lawrence dying from his wounds. So great was the jubi- 
lation over this victory in England, that Broke was made a 
baronet. But the loss of the Chesapeake was to be avenged. 

§ 10. Perry "Won a Great Victory on the Lakes. 

On Lake Erie the fleets built by English and Americans 
met on September 10, 1813. So far we had generally won 
in ship-duels. Could we win in fleet encounters, the strong- 
est feature of British naval warfare ? The flag-ship of the 
American Commodore, Oliver Hazard Perry, was named the 
Laivrence, and carried a flag inscribed with the dying words 
of the captain of the Chesapeake, " Don't give up the ship." 
In officers and men the fleets were evenly matched. There 
were nine ships of the Americans to six of the British, but 
the latter carried more guns, and of longer range. 



424 our nation's wars. 

In the attack the Lawrence was made the special target 
of the English long-range guns, and was battered almost 
into wreckage. Perry jumped with his flag into a boat, and 
was rowed, under heavy fire, to his next largest ship, the 
Niagara. Then getting into close range with his fleet, he 
won the battle in short order. Barclay, the British com- 
mander, was a veteran who had served under Nelson at 
Trafalgar, and in this action, well fought on both sides, the 
naval prestige of England received a heavy blow. 

Upon the deck of his shattered flag-ship, Perry, then a 
young man of twenty-eight years, received the British 
officers who came one after another, in surrender, from the 
entire fleet of six vessels. To General Harrison, who was in 
command of the army of the West, Perry wrote the famous 
despatch, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." 

§ 11. Harrison Followed with a Victory on the Land. 

The victory gave control of Lake Erie to the Americans. 
Perry transported Harrison and his troops across to Canada. 
The British were compelled to evacuate Detroit. Harri- 
son next routed the combined forces of the English and 



LAND VICTORIES. 425 

Indians at the Battle of the Thames, where the famous 
chief Tecumseh was killed. The enemy never after got 
a foothold in Michigan. 

§ 12. "We Lost Elsewhere and then Recovered our Losses. 
In marked contrast with this brilliant naval success upon 
Lake Erie, the military leaders on the Niagara and St. 
Lawrence rivers continued the display of incapacity which 
had hitherto characterized the campaign in those regions. 
Wilkinson, a relic of the Revolution, and Wade Hampton, 
a haughty Carolinian who was his bitter enemy, made very 
bad work of the proposed joint invasion of central Canada 
to capture Montreal ; and the troops under their command 
returned without effecting anything. 

At last Congress woke up to the fact that ancient repu- 
tations and political influence would not win victories. A 
thorough re-organization was made ; and Jacob Brown, a 
New York militia officer, who by native abilities had risen 
to a prominent position in the army, was put in charge of 
operations. Under him young Winfield Scott distinguished 
himself, and the battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane 
were fought with credit to American arms. 

§ 13. Andrew Jackson Gained Practice in the Art of War. 

In the Southwest, that born leader of men, Andrew 
Jackson, was heard from. With Tennessee State volunteer 
troops he quelled the great revolt of the Creek Indians and 
broke their power in the battle of Horseshoe Bend on the 
Tallapoosa River in eastern Alabama, where eight hundred 
of the Creeks were killed. This revolt had been incited by 
British and Spanish agents, and by Tecumseh, the Indian 
agitator. Jackson's success made him a national hero. 



426 our nation's wabs. 

Later in the War Jackson raised more volunteers, and 
went to the help of New Orleans, as it was known that a 
great naval and military expedition from England was on 
the way to capture the city. 

§ 14. Macdonough Won on Lake Champlain. 
In the summer of 1814 the British attempted the inva- 
sion of New York State by the way of Lake Champlain as 
Burgoyne had done thirty-seven years before. But Thomas 
Macdonough, commanding a small fleet of American vessels, 
defeated the British fleet September 11, 1814, in a brilliant 
engagement that rivaled the victory of Lake Erie, and the 
invasion was in consequence recalled. 

§ 15. The British Took an Unprotected Capital. 

In August the British, with a fleet and five thousand 
men, made a raid on Washington, the Capital of our 
country. After defeating a large body of volunteer sol- 
diers and burning the public buildings there, they made 
an attempt on Baltimore, but the fleet met a decided 
repulse at Fort McHenry which defended the city. Then 
the fleet and troops, British regulars and French hirelings, 
sailed away, having accomplished nothing but the wanton 
ruin of Washington. 

One thing of great interest resulted to this country from 
the attack on Fort McHenry, worth far more than all the 
public buildings burned at the Capital. This was the com- 
position of the " Star Spangled Banner," by Francis Scott 
Key, a young Marylander who watched the flag on the Fort 
during its bombardment. The words were set to the al- 
ready familiar music of " Anacreon," and the whole country 
was soon ringing with the patriotic and inspiring song. 



THE VICTORY AT NEW ORLEANS. 427 



§ 16. England's Navy Overwhelmed Our Commerce Upon the 
Atlantic, but One Ship Destroyed Hers Upon the Pacific. 

The year 1814 preceded the final overthrow of the great 
Napoleon. In it England was comparatively free to attend 
to her war with America. The result was that, with her 
thousand great war-vessels she succeeded in blockading our 
Atlantic coast harbors and in putting an end to our sea- 
trade. In the Pacific, David Porter, captain of the Essex, 
swept the British whalers from the seas, only to be taken 
himself in the neutral harbor of Valparaiso in a fight with 
two British vessels. 

§ 17. We Fought and "Won the Greatest Battle of the War 
Fifteen Days after the Treaty of Peace. 

Sir Edward Pakenham, brother-in-law and subordinate 
officer of the great Duke of Wellington, who was destined 
in this same year, 1815, to overthrow at Waterloo Napo- 
leon, Emperor of the French, landed near New Orleans, 
with twelve thousand men. He hoped to win the Lou- 
isiana Territory. The defense of the city had been hastily 
arranged by General Jackson, who had six thousand men 
under him, a motley crowd made up of Louisiana militia, 
ex-pirates, prisoners, free Negroes, and volunteers from 
Tennessee and Kentucky. Fortunately, these last were fine 
rifle-shots. Behind a ditch and rude earthworks this mon- 
grel army under Jackson awaited the assault of the well- 
trained soldiers of Wellington. 

What followed was a fine lesson to Europe, teaching the 
value of individual skill in soldiers. The veterans of the 
British army, marching bravely to the attack, were mowed 
down by cannon balls and by rifle bullets until human 
nature could stand the ordeal no longer. Pakenham was 



428 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



killed, and the officer second in command was mortally 
wounded. Over two thousand of his army fell in the 
assault, while the backwoodsmen suffered a loss of about 
twenty killed and wounded. As Monroe wrote to Jackson, 
" History records no example of so glorious a victory won 
with so little loss on the part of the victors." The British 
at once packed up and left for the West Indies. 




General Andrew Jackson at the Battle of 



Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815. 



§ 18. 



"We Won Again on the Sea, -when News of Peace 
Arrived. 



Soon after, as a fitting climax to the brilliant record of 
the navy, came the news that the gallant frigate Constitu- 
tion had captured two British vessels in a single action, 
the Cyane and the Levant. Finally, the news arrived 
from Ghent that a treaty of peace had been signed which 
these last successes made all the more binding, at least upon 



A SINGULAR TREATY. 429 



Great Britain. The impressment of seamen had been 
gloriously avenged by the navy, and the United States 
emerged from the war with the respect of Europe. For 
more than eighty years thereafter not a hostile shot was 
exchanged between this country and any European power. 

§ 19. We were Assured of the Respect of Europe. 

In the treaty signed at Ghent, December 23, 1814, not a 
word was said about the questions of impressment, of right 
of search, and of the trade of neutrals in war-time, but it 
was commonly understood that hereafter all the contentions 
of the Americans were to stand as international law. Such 
was the influence of fifteen victories at sea in eighteen 
fights, in not one of which, however, was any one of Eng- 
land's greatest frigates engaged. These were constantly 
needed against Napoleon. 

Conspiracy of Tecumseh. 

§ 20. The Last Great Conspiracy of the Indians Came 
to Naught. 

Besides the international difficulties, there arose several 
difficulties with the Indians. The American aborigines 
had not a few confederations before the white men came 
here. In the. days of John Smith, a chief by name Waheen- 
sonacook, commonly known as Powhatan, father of Poca- 
hontas, had made himself the head of thirty Virginia tribes, 
1607. A few years later in southeastern New England, 
Metacoma, commonly known as King Philip, organized his 
great war-alliance. A century later, there was planned the 
formidable conspiracy of Pontiac. 

The Indians had a positive genius for conspiracy, but no 



430 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



talent at all for confederation, except only in the case of 
the Iroquois Nations. Their alliance may date from the 
mythical, yet not impossible, diplomacy of Hiawatha, a 
hero in our American poetry located rather too far west to 
fit the facts recently discovered. 

There arose in 1804 two leaders, Tecumseh, and his 
brother Elskwatawa, "The Prophet," a great medicine-man, 

who set about organizing a secret 
confederation of all the Indians 
from the Appalachians to the 
Mississippi. He succeeded in 
interesting many thousands of 
Indians, including the Shawnees 
of the North and the Creeks and 
Seminoles of the South. His 
brother was defeated by Harrison 
at Tippecanoe in 1811. Tecum- 
seh himself, while supporting the 
British, was killed in the battle 
of the Thames, 1813, at the same 
time of the year as the Creeks 
were overthrown by Jackson in 
the South. 

Thus ended what might have 
been a tremendous uprising, fomented as it was by both the 
British and the Spanish. The Western settlers, in Tennessee, 
Kentucky, and Ohio, had been the men most urgent in bring- 
ing on the "War of 1812," alleging that the British were 
secret supporters of the dangerous Indians. After Tecum- 
seh's death, the Indians moved further west rapidly, leaving 
" the land of the western waters " to peaceful settlement. 




Seminole Chief. 



EARLY NATIONAL WARS. 431 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Compare the American, English, and French Revolutions. 

2. How was the United States involved in the Napoleonic Wars ? 

3. What was the war with France, 1799-1800 ? 

4. Discuss the wars with the Barbary States. 

5. What were the causes of the " War of 1812 ? " 

6. Discuss Clay's views regarding impressment and naturalization. 

7. Give an account of the land-battles in 1812. 

8. Discuss the sea-battles. 

9. Give an account of the defeat of the Chesapeake. 

10. Give an account of the battle of Lake Erie. 

11. What was the result of the battle of the Thames ? 

12. Discuss the next following land battles. 

13. Give an account of Andrew Jackson in the Southwest. 

14. Give an account of the battle of Lake Champlain. 

15. Discuss the burning of Washington. 

16. Compare the records upon the Atlantic and the Pacific in 1814. 

17. Give an account of the battle of New Orleans. 

18. What was the last brilliant exploit of the Constitution ? 

19. What were the results of the War ? 

20. Discuss Indian Conspiracies and the death of Tecumseh. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries. Vol. III. 

Ford's True Benjamin Franklin. 

Duyckinck's Portrait Gallery. Our Naval Heroes. 

Larned's JJistory for Ready Reference, Vol. 5, and Harper's Encyclopedia 

of United States Ilistory for all soldiers, sea-captains, ships, and 

battles of importance. 

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR ADDITIONAL INQUIRY. 

1. The Chesapeake. Cause of the War: Later Record. 

2. The Constitution (" Old Ironsides *'). 

3. Stephen Decatur, Andrew T Jackson, Tecumseh, etc., etc. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1775-1783. War of Independence. 
1799-1800. War with France. 
1812-1815. War with Great Britain. 
1814. Treaty of Peace. 



432 our nation's wars. 

CHAPTER II. 

THE MEXICAN WAR, I846-I848. 
§ 1. The Annexation of Texas Involved Us in "War. 

With the annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845, 
the United States, as predicted by Webster, Clay, Benton, 
and other statesmen, annexed also a war with Mexico. The 
boundary line of Texas and Mexico was in dispute before 
annexation, and became a burning question after that. 

Texas insisted that the old line, in accordance with the 
claims of the original pioneer, La Salle, and recognized by 
treaties of Spain with both England and France, established 
the border on the Rio Grande River; while Mexico con- 
tended that the Nueces River, which was the southern 
boundary line of Texas when it was a Mexican State, was 
the proper line. 

When Texas established her independence of Mexico, 
this question was left in an unsettled condition, and 
became a legacy of war to the United States. The tech- 
nical rights of the question are open to discussion, but there 
is no doubt whatever that the Rio Grande is the natural 
boundary line rather than the insignificant River Nueces, 
which reached but little over two hundred miles inland. 
The Rio Grande extends over a thousand miles to the great 
continental divide of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. 

§ 2. American Soldiers were Captured. 

This debatable area between the Nueces and the Rio 
Grande had been the scene of many social disorders; and 
the government of the United States, taking the Texas 
side of the question, sent a force of men under General 
Taylor to seize the district. Taylor advanced along the 



BEFORE THE DECLARATION OF WAR. 



433 



Gulf Coast as far as the Rio Grande, and built Fort Brown 
opposite the Mexican town of Matamoras on the other side 
of the river. Hearing that Mexican troops were crossing 
the river at different points, he sent Captain Thornton with 




Mexican War and Cessions of Territory. 



a troop of cavalry to reconnoiter. Thornton's party was 
surrounded, and after a fight in which several were killed 
and wounded, was finally captured by a much larger Mexi- 
can force. This was the first bloodshed. 



434 otJR nation's wars. 



§ 3. Polk Declared War. 

President Polk at once announced that a state of War 
existed, begun by the Mexicans with the slaughter of 
Americans on American soil. Although this statement 
begged the question at issue, which involved the ownership 
of the soil, it served the purpose of the Administration, and 
the war was undertaken before Congress could act. 

Polk and most of his party, and most of the Southern 
people, desired the war as a means of territorial expansion. 
The Northern Whigs opposed it bitterly. 

§ 4. Taylor "Won at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. 

Taylor's first move was to fall back to the Nueces to 
secure supplies, leaving a garrison which bravely held the 
fort on the Rio Grande. Having effected his purpose, he 
advanced again, and not far from Fort Brown met the 
Mexican army under General Arista, drawn up in a strong 
position at Palo Alto. Taylor's force was somewhat over 
2,000 men, while that of the Mexicans was about 5,000. 

The battle which followed was peculiar in that it was an 
artillery duel entirely, May 8, 1846. The American loss 
was small ; but the Mexicans suffered severely, and re- 
treated over-night to a position at Resaca de la Palma, on 
the farther side of a ravine that intersected the high-road. 
The Americans attacked on the day following. After a 
tremendous fight the engagement ended with a charge of 
dragoons and then with a charge of infantry which put the 
Mexicans to rout. They fled in panic to the Rio Grande, 
where many were drowned in trying to swim across to 
Matamoras. Taylor crossed the river with his forces the 
following week, and occupied Matamoras without resistance. 



tailor's victories. 435 



§ 5. Politics Brought Scott Into Prominence to Offset Taylor. 

These early operations of the war were not of great mag- 
nitude, — Taylor's losses in the two engagements being less 
than two hundred killed and wounded, — but they made a 
great sensation throughout the United States. Taylor was 
the new hero of the hour, and began to be talked about for 
the Presidency. The fact that Taylor was reaping the 
glories of the war, made Scott, the general-in-chief of the 
army, envious. The old hero of Lundy's Lane in the War 
of 1812 desired to go to the front himself, but had been 
held back by the politicians of a Democratic administration, 
who fully appreciated the dangers of making " Presidential 
timber " out of Whig " war-heroes." 

Taylor, too, was a Whig, and it was greatly regretted 
by the President and his advisers that no good Democrat 
could be found who measured up to the standard of the two 
Whig generals. When, a few months later, Taylor fol- 
lowed up his initial successes with a brilliant capture of the 
strongly fortified city of Monterey, the feeling in Adminis- 
tration circles was that the time had come to make a 
change. An expedition was planned for the capture of the 
City of Mexico, the Capital of the nation, and Scott was 
assigned to lead it, not because the authorities loved Scott 
more, but that it enabled them to fear Taylor less. 

§ 6. Taylor Won a Fight at Great Odds. 

Taylor's army was reduced in order to strengthen Scott, 
who was to land at Vera Cruz, and to pursue the historic 
route of Cortes over the mountains to the Capital. Taylor's 
position became unsafe early in the following year. He had 
gone beyond Monterey, as far as Saltillo ; and his army, 



436 our, nation's wars. 



now reduced from 15,000 to 5,000 men, was threatened by 
Santa Anna, who was again at the head of the Mexican 
Government, and who, hearing of the reduction in Taylor's 
army, had marched against him with 20,000 men. 

In spite of the tremendous odds against him, Taylor 
determined to fight. He placed his troops in a good defen- 
sive position on a plateau at Buena Vista, at the edge of 
the mountains, and waited for the Mexicans to come on. 
Santa Anna at first sent a summons to Taylor to surrender, 
assuring him that he was surrounded by 20,000 men, and 
could not possibly escape. His invitation was declined. 
Santa Anna waited till next day, February 23, 1847. 
Early in the forenoon the Mexicans attacked Taylor's left 
and center in solid columns. Soon, where* the fire was 
hottest, a regiment of raw recruits from Indiana broke and 
fled. It was a critical moment. Taylor at once brought 
to the front the Mississippians under Jefferson Davis, a 
Kentucky regiment, and artillery. These, joined by an 
Illinois regiment, drove back the Mexicans, and blocked 
their pursuit of the fugitives. 

The battle was long and desperate. Charge after charge 
of .the Mexican cavalry was repulsed. The American 
artillery was splendidly served, and played havoc with the 
Mexicans. Later in the battle a large body of Mexican 
cavalry, skirting along the mountains, threatened the Haci- 
enda of Buena Yista, and the American supplies in the 
rear. Colonel May of the artillery, and the mounted volun- 
teers of Arkansas and Kentucky under Coles, Marshall, 
and Yell, met this new danger. In a charge that put the 
enemy to flight, the brave leader Yell was killed at the 
head of his soldiers. 



scott's victories. 437 



On the American right the righting was severe. Here fell 
Colonels Hardin, McKee, and Clay, the last a son of the Ken- 
tucky statesman, Henry Clay, who as leader of the Whigs 
opposed the War. Night came on, and the fighting ceased. 
In the morning it was found that Santa Anna had retreated. 
Some days later he entered San Luis Potosi with about one- 
half of the fine army that fought Taylor at Buena .Vista. 

The annals of modern history afford no parallel to the 
swift and overwhelming success of this engagement. Tay- 
lor soon after returned to the United States, for there was 
nothing more to do in northern Mexico, and he had not 
been invited to join Scott's enterprise farther south. But 
he needed no further glory. Buena Vista made him the 
next President. 

§ 7. Scott Won at Vera Cruz and Cerro Gordo. 

Early in March, 1847, Scott landed below Vera Cruz 
with an army of 12,000 men, and invested the city. After 
a bombardment of nine days it surrendered. 

The high-road to Mexico City from Vera Cruz is a con- 
stant rise to higher and higher ground, and the country 
abounds in natural fortifications formed by the mountains. 
At a pass called Cerro Gordo, on the road to Mexico, Santa 
Anna had collected an army of 12,000 men. Scott's force, 
numbering 9,000, attacked the Mexicans at this point, and 
gained a brilliant victory. Five Mexican generals and 
3,000 prisoners were taken, and the army was put to 
flight. 

Pushing on, Scott passed through Jalapa to Puebla ; 
and as the country was high, cool, and healthy, the army 
spent a part of- the summer there, waiting for re-enforce- 
ments. 



438 



OUR NATION S WARS. 




Battle of Cerro Gordo. 



§ 8. The Advance upon the City of Mexico. 

In August, Scott resumed his march, and reached the 
vicinity of the City of Mexico without further fighting. 
On August 20 several successes for American arms are 
recorded. The fortified camp of Contreras was stormed. 
The fortified village of San Antonio was captured, and the 
two fortified heights of Churubusco were separately stormed. 
Finally, after the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, 
Santa Anna, who had come out of the city to assist his 
garrisons, was driven back into the city. 

Negotiations for peace followed these successes until 
Scott learned that Santa Anna was taking advantage of the 
delay to strengthen his works. He then resumed hostil- 
ities, and after a series of brilliant operations stormed the 
splendid citadel of Chapultepec. The Americans swarmed 



THE CITY OF MEXICO WAS TAKEN. 



439 



over the walls with the aid of scaling-ladders. The last 
stronghold of the City's defense was now gone, and Santa 
Anna with his army and with the chief officials of the 
Government fled at midnight. The officers who had re- 
mained approached Scott before daylight, and offered to 
capitulate. Scott, disappointed at the escape of those 
whom he particularly wished to capture, refused to sign any 




Battle of Molino del Rey. 



articles of capitulation, and entered the City with his troops, 
meeting no resistance. The Stars and Stripes were hoisted 
over the National Palace, and the second conquest of 
Mexico was consummated. 

Before this time, however, the uninterrupted successes of 
the Americans began to pall upon the public taste. Al- 
though the fall of Mexico gratified the national pride, it 
was felt that the Mexicans were easy victims, and the 



440 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



triumphal entry of the Capital by Scott and his army ex- 
cited but a tithe of the enthusiasm that attended the earlier 
victories of old " Rough and Ready " Taylor, who had prac- 
tically been discarded by the United States Government. 

§ 9. California, New Mexico, and Other Regions were 
Wrested from the Weak Hands of Mexico. 

Earlier in the War California and the region that is 
now Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico fell into the 

hands of the 
Americans, 
through the 
work of the 
navy, aided 
by Captain 
John C. Fre- 
mont, and by 
the expedi- 
tion of Gen- 
eral Kearney 
with a little 
army of 1,800 
men. When 

the time of treaty-making came, the United States be- 
lieved that we could make better use of this vast territory 
than Mexico. Consequently its cession to us was insisted 
upon, and a price was paid for it that, with the price of the 
subsequent cession of a small additional strip on the south- 
ern border of Arizona, called the Gadsden Purchase, 1853, 
amounted in all to 128,000,000. This was, perhaps, a fair 
price for it at the time, and relatively much greater than 
the sum paid Napoleon for Louisiana. 




General Scott Entering the City of Mexico. 



THE WAR AS A SCHOOL FOR WAR. 441 



§ 10. The Cause of the War was the Land Hunger of a 
Progressive People. 

A large portion of the American people, especially the 
anti-slavery element, did not favor the war with Mexico, 
fearing the designs of the South for an extension of slave- 
territory in the vast regions of the Southwest. The war, 
they claimed, was begun in aggression, and had ended in 
spoliation. The political heartburnings and conflicts en- 
gendered on its account grew, and mingled in the great 
anti-slavery movement of 1850-60. 

The u wrath of man " has been overruled to the praise of 
God as the years have rolled by, and the war with Mexico 
is now seen to have been a questionable means to an excel- 
lent end. It grew from the forth-stepping spirit of the 
American people, to whom the main stretch of the Conti- 
nent from the Atlantic to the Pacific now belongs. The 
Southerners desired Texas and the region west, partly for 
new slave States so as to protect their representation in 
the National Senate, but mainly for more cheap lands 
upon which to establish great slave-labor plantations. How- 
ever, the desire of the Southerners for more land was 
scarcely stronger than that of the Westerners, who had no 
slaves. 

§ 11. The Mexican War was a School for the War of 
Secession. 

As the early intercolonial wars of the eighteenth century 
had been the only school for the training of George 
Washington, John Stark, Israel Putnam, and many others of 
the leaders of the Revolution, so the Mexican War was the 
school for the leaders of the War of Secession that followed 
but fourteen years later. In the Mexican- War, Captain 



442 our nation's wars. 



Robert E. Lee made himself famous for his services as an 
engineer in the siege of Vera Cruz, and Lieutenant Ulysses 
S. Grant led a gallant assault at Chapultepec. Thomas, 
Davis, Jackson, Sherman, McClellan, and Farragut were 
also engaged in the War. 

§ 12. Results of the Establishment of Military and Naval 
Academies. 

It is interesting to see, in the careers of Lee, Grant, and 
others, the. results of the training at West Point Military 
Academy, established in 1802, but not completely organized 
until 1817, as the result of the War of 1812 and its early 
military disasters. The Annapolis Naval Academy was 
begun in 1845 upon the foundations of an earlier school, 
and was organized thoroughly in 1850. Neither Scott nor 
Taylor, Perry nor Jackson, Washington nor Greene nor 
Paul Jones, was regularly educated to arms on sea or land. 
But since the Mexican War, most of the great soldiers and 
sailors have been men trained for their duties. Grant, Lee, 
Sherman, Jackson, and Dewey were graduated at either 
West Point or Annapolis. 

As civilization advances, all the arts become more diffi- 
cult, including the art of war. The generals and the 
admirals of recent years have been trained for their suc- 
cesses by long years of special education. 

It is also interesting to note that the New England 
States and New York and Ohio, which were seriously op- 
posed to the Mexican War, and sent few soldiers to engage 
in it, did not contribute any one of the great soldiers in the 
armies of the War of Secession, for lack of war-experience, 
though these States of the Northeast were vigorous sup- 
porters of the Union cause in 1861-1865, 



THE MEXICAN WAR. 443 



QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. In 1845 what was the boundary dispute with Mexico ? 

2. Give an account of the first incident of the War. 

3. Who supported and who opposed the War ? 

4. Give an account of Taylor's first victories. 

5. Discuss the political cause of the expedition under Scott. 

6. Give an account of the battle of Buena Vista. 

7. Give an account of Scott's campaign and battles. 

8. Discuss events before the entry into the city of Mexico. 

9. What cessions of land did Mexico make to our nation ? 

10. What were the fundamental causes of the war with Mexico ? 

11. Discuss the Mexican War as a school for soldiers in the War of 
Secession. 

12. Give accounts of West Point Military and Annapolis Naval 
Academies. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. IV., pp. 11-34. 

Von Hoist's Constitutional and Political History of the United States, 

Vol. III., Chaps. IV. -IX. 
Ladd's History of the Mexican War: also Mansfield's. 
Howard's Life of General Taylor, Chaps. VIII. -XIX. 
Noll's Short History of Mexico, Chap. IX. 
Harper's Encyclopedia of United States History. 
Schouler's History of the United States, Vol. IV., pp. 495, et seq. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS. 

1. Polk's Reasons for the War. 

2. Clay's Reasons for Opposing the War. 

3. Causes of the Easy Victories of the Americans. 

4. Good and Evil Results of the War. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1775-1783. War of Independence. 
1812-1814 (1815). British-American War. 
1845. Annexation of Texas. 
1846-1847. Mexican- American War, 
1850. The Fugitive Slave Law. 
1861-1865, War of Secession, 



444 CAUSES OF SECESSION. 



CHAPTER ill. 

THE WAR OF SECESSION. 
. § 1. Causes of the War. 

1. The Southerners had lonof been dominant in the 
National Government. They saw the free-labor North- 
erners growing stronger. Fearing loss of political suprem- 
acy, they began the War as a challenge, expecting either 
handsome terms for re-admission to the Union, or peaceful 
permission to set up a new nation. 

2. The decline and final disappearance of slavery in the 
North, and its great increase in the South, established a 
marked difference in the social life between the two sec- 
tions, whose interests were apparently irreconcilable. 

3. The Southerners believed that the States had the 
right to secede. They acted upon this belief, and immedi- 
ately made a new federation, like the old one in all im- 
portant particulars except those relating to slavery. The 
Southern States seized upon the property of the Union as 
belonging to them in due proportion to the other States. 

All the causes of the war were Southern, since that sec- 
tion took the aggressive and began the fighting. The 
Union forces did not " invade " the South, for that was not 
a foreign nation. They were endeavoring to restore the 
authority of the National Government in that rebellious 
region. The Union never recognized the Confederacy as a 
nation. 

§ 2. The Story is in Two Parts: the Progressive Movement 
from the West, and the Circling Combat in the East. 

In its large outlines, the story of the War of Secession is 
simple. Its first important battle was at Bull Run, and its 



THE WAE, WEST AXD EAST. 445 



last at Appomattox ; the former near the Federal Capital, 
Washington ; the latter near the Confederate Capital, Rich- 
mond. More men perished on the battlefields of Virginia 
than on those of all the other States combined. 

After the capture of New Orleans and of the great 
Mississippi valley, the armies of the West advanced east- 
ward to the Ocean and then northward, until they were 
almost in touch with the armies of Virginia when the War 
was over. A continuous game was played between the 
opposing forces in eastern Virginia ; and a progressive fight 
was carried on eastward from the great Southwest. It 
took two years to gain control of the Mississippi, and two 
more to overrun the Confederate States ; while the san- 
guinary warfare circled unceasingly around Washington 
and Richmond. 

§ 3. The History of the "War in the "West is Less Horrible and 
More Picturesque than that of the "War in the East. 

To Farragut, Porter, and Grant, is credited the capture 
of the Mississippi, and to Grant, Sherman, Rosecrans, and 
Thomas, are credited the operations that successfully moved 
the Union armies through the Southern States and up to 
Virginia. As for the conflict in Virginia, no great credit is 
to be awarded the leaders, though much to the men who 
were led to slaughter. In that dreadful region of death, 
more than three hundred thousand lives were lost in four 
years. The fighting in the South and in the Mississippi 
valley was on a broader scale, and was far more brilliant and 
picturesque. Great rivers and mountain ranges, dismal for- 
ests and swamps, ocean, gulf, and plain, formed its vast 
field of action. Long marches and grand strategy charac- 
terized it. Though the loss of life was great in these 



446 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



Western and Southern campaigns, the variety of incident 
breaks the gloom of war; but the story of the death-pen 
in Virginia is crowded full of horrors. 

§ 4. Fort Sumter Fell, April 12, 1861. 

The attack upon Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, 
April 12, 1861, is usually considered the beginning of 
hostilities, although the firing upon the merchant steamer 




Charleston from the Bay, I860. 

Star of the West, some months before, when on its way with 
provisions to Major Anderson and his troops in the Fort, 
was really the first incident, January 9. Just three days 
later, January 12, a vessel of the navy in the Gulf had 
captured several Confederates, and had sent them as prison- 
ers to' New York. On April 12 occurred the first attack 
upon Fort Pickens in Pensacola Harbor, where Lieutenant 
Adam J. Slemmer was in command of the little garrison of 
eighty men. Every port upon the coast-line of the seceding 
States was taken by the Confederates except this, which 
was held valiantly and successfully by the Union soldiers 
and sailors. 



THE PALL OF FORT SUMTER. 



447 




§ 5. Toombs had Protested Against the Attack. 

The Confederate Secretary of State at Montgomery, 
Robert Toombs, had judged the situation better than his 
associates when he advised against 
the attack on Fort Sumter. Said 
he, " The firing upon that Fort 
will inaugurate a civil war greater 
than any the world has yet seen. 
You will wantonly strike a hor- 
net's nest which extends from the 
mountains to ocean, and legions 
now quiet will swarm out and 
sting us to death. It is unneces- 
sary, it puts us in the wrong, it 
is fatal ! " In spite of the warn- 
ing, President Davis sent orders 
to reduce the Fort. 

The firing upon Fort Sumter 
was an act of war, as was each seizure of forts and arsenals 
and of United States supplies by the Confederacy at this 
time throughout the South. But the picture of the little 
garrison in Charleston, the nursery of secession, bombarded, 
starved out, and compelled to pull down the American 
flag, fired the Union heart as nothing else could. 

§ 6. Lincoln Called for Seventy-five Thousand Volunteers. 

In response to President Lincoln's proclamation the day 
after the surrender, calling for seventy-five thousand men, 
without regard to party there was an instant outburst of 
sentimental patriotism. The Flag must be vindicated, and 
hundreds of thousands of volunteers offered their services. 

A few days after the fall of Sumter, April 19, 1861, the 



Robert Toombs. 

Born, 1810 ; died, 1885. 

Brigadier-General Confederate Army 

Confederate Secretary of State. 



448 



anniversary of the battle of Lexington, a regiment of vol- 
unteers from Massachusetts on its way to Washington was 
fired upon in passing through Baltimore, and several men 
were killed. 

§ 7. The Two Capitals were but One Hundred Miles Apart. 
In May, 1861, the Confederacy moved its Capital from 
Alabama to Virginia, and Richmond was made the seat of 
government. This was done out of the Southern affection 
for Virginia, the mother-State of the South, but it was a 
strategic error. Atlanta would have been a better center 
for the new Government. The two Capitals, Washington 
and Richmond, one hundred miles apart from north to 
south, became headquarters of enormous military prepara- 
tions. Both were speedily turned into fortified camps, and 
glared at each other over a little tract of well wooded and 
watered country, soon to be soaked in blood. 

§ 8. Missouri, Kentucky, and Maryland Supported the Union. 

In the great West preparations for war were pushed with 
vigor. The majority of the people in Missouri were op- 
posed to secession, but the government was in the control 
of men strongly in sympathy with the South, who dragged 
the State into the Southern alliance. The State was saved 
to the Union by the energetic action of Frank P. Blair, a 
lawyer of St. Louis, and of Captain Nathaniel Lyon, United 
States Commandant at the Arsenal in that city. These 
two men, backed by public sentiment, overturned the Se- 
cessionist State government, and put a loyal government 
in its place, an exploit worth many battles to the North. 

Kentucky, at first neutral, cast in her lot with the North, 
stimulated by premature military raids from the South. 



THE UNION SLAVE-STATES. 



449 




Maryland was held in the Union by her geographical 
position and by Federal forces ; and little Delaware re- 
mained of her own volition. 

Many citizens of these border 
slave States joined the Confederate 
armies. 

§ 9. West Virginia Seceded and 
Remained in the Union. 

Virginia had seceded, but West 
Virginia broke away, with forty- 
eight counties (now fifty-five) to 
stay in the Union. 

At its eastern corner is Har- 
per's Ferry, scene of John 
Brown's fanatic heroism, which 
the freedom-loving mountaineers 
understood and admired. 

Thus the lines were drawn between North and South ; 
and after a few preliminary skirmishes in West Virginia, in 
which the Union forces, under General McClellan, drove the 
Confederates out of the State, hostilities began in the region 
between the two Capitals. 

§ 10. Bull Run was the First Great Battle. 

The cry from the North was " On to Richmond," while 
the South urged its army "On to Washington." July 16, 
about thirty thousand national troops, under General 
McDowell, set out from Washington. A few days later 
they encountered the Confederate forces under General 
Johnston at Bull Run, a small stream about twenty-five 
miles southwest of the city. It was a conflict of raw 



George B. McClellan. 

Born, 1826 ; died, 1885. 

Lieutenant, Mexican War : General 

Governor New Jersey. 



450 



OtTB KATION S WARS. 




troops on both sides. The Union forces outnumbered the 
Confederates by a few thousand. Each side fought with 
bravery and sustained heavy losses. In the afternoon 
victory seemed to favor McDowell and his forces, when 

in the west 
was seen the 
dust of an 
approaching 
column. It 
might be 
troops from 
the Union 
General Pat- 
terson or from 
the Confeder- 
ate General 

Struggle on the Bridge in the Retreat from Manassas (Bull Run). t^ i ^ 

Early who 
had been watching each other in the Shenandoah Valley 
over to the westward. It was a critical moment. Johnston 
made ready for retreat, as he feared that a fresh Union 
column had arrived. But soon the Stars and Bars were dis- 
cerned, and the hour of Confederate triumph had come. 
Three regiments of fresh soldiers fell upon the Union flank 
and rear. Panic followed, and then rout. The Federals 
retreated in disorder to Washington, leaving the Confed- 
erates victors on the field, but not in condition for vigorous 
pursuit. 

§ 11. The Federal Defeat Roused the North. 

Bull Run shocked the North and elated the South, and 
the shock worked more ' benefit than the elation. It was 
evident now that the war was going to be a very serious 






THE BATTLE OE BULL RUN. 451 



matter. Union sentiment was consolidated at the North, 
and grim determination took the place of the impatient 
expectation of speedy victory. McClellan was called from 
West Virginia to Washington to organize and to drill a large 
army. While he was attending to a task for which he was 
peculiarly well fitted, the Union armies in the great West 
prepared for the invasion of the South and for the seizure 
of the Mississippi. 

§ 12. Active Movements Southward Began in the West. 

General John C. Fremont was at this time in command 
of the Department of the West, with headquarters at 
St. Louis. Under orders from him, Grant, who had just 
risen from the colonelcy of an Illinois regiment to the rank 
of brigadier-general, occupied the important strategic point 
of Cairo at the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. 
A little later he moved on to Paducah, Kentucky, at the 
mouth of the Tennessee, and a few miles below the mouth 
of the Cumberland. The Confederates had fortified New 
Madrid, Columbus, and Island No. 10 below Cairo on the 
Mississippi, and had built Fort Henry on the Tennessee 
and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland. They had also 
established a strong camp at Bowling Green, Kentucky. 
A flotilla of gunboats was hastily constructed from river 
steamboats, by the enterprising Northerners, and the inva- 
sion of the South began early in 1862. 

§ 13. General W. T. Sherman was Displaced Because He 
Understood Affairs. 

A little before this time, General Sherman, in command 
at Louisville, lost the confidence of his superiors by what 
they called his " crazy " declaration that two hundred and 



452 our nation's wars. 



fifty thousand men would be required for operations in the 
great Southwest. His foresight, like that of Toombs at 
the time of the attack on Fort Sumter, did not find immedi- 
ate approval, and he was superseded by General Buell. 

§ 14. Thomas and Grant Won Successes. 

General Thomas in central Kentucky distinguished him- 
self by winning the first considerable victory in the 
campaign, at Mill Springs, where he defeated the Con- 
federates under Zollicoffer, who was himself killed, and 
whose army was scattered. Albert Sidney Johnston was in 
command of the Confederate forces of the West, with 
headquarters at Bowling Green, when Grant began his 
advance across Kentucky into Tennessee. The Union 
general, moving up the Tennessee with seventeen thou- 
sand men and a gunboat flotilla, took Fort Henry, which 
surrendered without resistance before the land forces 
arrived. Meanwhile, the Confederate commander sent 
most of his garrison over to Fort Donelson, a much stronger 
position on the Cumberland, fifteen miles distant. 

§ 15. Grant Took Fort Donelson and Forced a Retreat. 

Here Grant won his first laurels of victory. He marched 
across country while the flotilla sailed down the Tennessee, 
up the Ohio a few miles, and then up the Cumberland. Fort 
Donelson was invested by land and river, and after a short 
siege and some heavy fighting, surrendered. Grant replied 
to General Buckner, who asked the terms of surrender, 
" No terms except immediate and unconditional surrender 
can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon 
your works." 

This was the first brilliant success of the War for the 



FOKTS HENRY AND DONELSON. 



453 



Federals. What was more important than the capture of 
fifteen thousand Confederates was that two navigable 
rivers, which extended into the heart of the Confederacy, 
were opened to the Unionists. Johnston at Bowling Green, 
threatened from the rear, retreated at once through Nash- 
ville and Murfreesboro to Decatur and thence to Corinth, 
and Nashville fell into the hands of General Buell. 

§ 16. Pope Took New Madrid and Island No. 10. 
Grant, after the triumph at Fort Donelson, the capture 
of two great rivers, and the occupation of Nashville, was 




Gunboat St. Louis. 



forbidden further activity by his over-cautious superior 
officer, Henry W. Halleck, a good theoretical soldier and 
executive manager, who seldom ordered a battle. Shortly 
after the fall of Fort Donelson, General Pope, with the aid 
of Commander Foote's flotilla, captured New Madrid, March 
14, and Island No. 10, April 8, on the Mississippi below 
Cairo, taking seven thousand Confederate prisoners. 



454 



OUR NATION S AVARS. 



§ 17. A Tremendous Battle was Fought at Pittsburg Landing. 

The Confederates, under Johnston and Beauregard, had 
already retreated to the line of the Memphis and Charles- 
ton Railroad, and fortified their headquarters at Corinth. 
After some delay Grant was ordered to take his forces to 
Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee River about twenty- 
four miles northeast of Johnston, and Buell received orders 
to join him there. Stimulated by chagrin at his long 
retreat, and goaded by the censure of President Davis, 




Battle of Pittsburg Landing. (Shiloh.) 

Johnston planned a quick move to surprise Grant, and 
caught him napping. It was not to be foreseen that the 
Confederates would leave their intrenchments at Corinth 
and make an attack in the open when the plan of the 
Federals was evidently to take the risk of attacking them 
within fortifications. But the unexpected is often the best 
strategy. In a heavy rainstorm Johnston suddenly rushed 



A SURPRISE. 455 

his army, of forty thousand men, up to Pittsburg Landing, 
and by a furious attack drove Grant's surprised army into 
the angle formed by the Tennessee and the Snake. 

§ 18. Sherman and Johnston were the Heroes of the Battle. 
Not expecting attack, Grant at the time was at head- 
quarters at Savannah, but fortunately Sherman was at the 
front. Immediately his genius for war became evident. 
His tall form was the most conspicuous figure in the fight. 
Horse after horse was shot under him, and he saved the 
troops from rout by his bravery and good judgment. His 
hat was shot through, and his uniform riddled. Though 
twice wounded by bullets, nothing dismayed him. The 
Federals were forced to retreat, but not in disorder. 

Early in the day Grant came upon the field and took 
charge of his hard-pressed army. The Confederates then 
made a desperate effort to turn the Union left, and to drive 
them into the swamps of the Snake creek. Johnston himself 
led the gallant charge, and fell, mortally wounded. But the 
attack went on. Prentiss was surrounded and captured 
with a part of his division, and thousands of the Federals 
were driven to the banks of the Tennessee. 

§ 19. The First Day's Fighting Ended in Union Defeat. 

The Confederate General, Bragg, now planned to carry 
the last position on the Union left, and had almost suc- 
ceeded when re-enforcements arrived. Ammen's brigade, 
which had been hurrying on in advance of Buell's army, 
hurried from the Landing, and received the attack of 
Bragg's troops. The advance regiment poured such a vol- 
ley at short range into the Confederate forces that their 
ranks were broken and their men sent flying. 



456 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



Meanwhile Sherman and McClernand on the right still 
held the bridge over the Snake. Night was coming on, 
and Beauregard, now in command, withdrew his men to the 




William Tecumseh Sherman. Born, 1821; died, 1891; General. 

Union camps of the previous night to give them food and 
rest for the conflict of the morrow. He did not know that 
Buell had already ascended the river from Savannah with 
his forces. Such was the first day of the bloodiest battle 
of the War in the Mississippi valley. 



PITTSBURG LANDING. 457 



§ 20. The Second Day Saw a Union Victory. 

On the second day of the fight the tables were turned. 
With twenty thousand fresh troops the Federals received 
the Confederate attack, made with a desperate valor that 
almost broke the left of the line. But the well-disciplined 
troops of Buell would not yield. In a storm of rain and 
sleet the order to advance was given. General Lew Wal- 
lace, who had been lost with his troops in the swamps on 
the first day of the battle, had by this time found his bear- 
ings, and had joined Sherman on the right. The tide of 
battle was turned, and the exhausted Confederates, out- 
numbered by half, were driven from the field. 

The losses in this battle, called Shiloh, from the name 
of a little church in the neighborhood of the Union camp, 
were thirteen thousand Federals and eleven thousand Con- 
federates. Beauregard fell back with his shattered forces 
upon Corinth, and strengthened its defences. Johnston's 
death was an irreparable loss. He was considered by many 
in the South the best of her generals. 

§ 21. Corinth was Deserted by the Confederates, and 
Memphis Fell. 

General Halleck now appeared on the scene, and took 
active command. With the forces of Grant, Buell, and 
Pope thus re-enforced, Halleck now commanded one hun- 
dred thousand men. This was a great army, and something 
significant was to be expected of it. Halleck immediately 
appointed Grant second in command of all the forces. 
This was a very fortunate move. Halleck expected that 
the great battle of the war would be fought at Corinth, 
where Beauregard was intrenched with forty or fifty thou- 
sand men, and he insisted on approaching the locality in 



458 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



accordance with the most scholarly military tactics. Every 
move was made with clock-like precision ; no precaution 
was neglected, and the army intrenched every night. 

Of course, progress was slow by this method, but it was 
sure. To advance twenty-four miles took almost as many 
days. When Corinth was finally reached, it had been 
deserted. The Confederates had retreated southward, and 
Pope pursued them for fifty miles. However, the occupa- 
tion of Corinth on the Memphis and Charleston Railroad 
had one significant result ; it led to the fall of Memphis on 




Grant's Dictator, that Moved on Railways and Fired Bombs from One Place and Then Another. 

the Mississippi, which was soon occupied by the Federals. 
The campaign of the spring of 1862 had thus effected im- 
portant results, and must be regarded as, on the whole, 
highly favorable to the Union forces. 

§ 22. Farragut Undertook the Capture of New Orleans. 
To the military successes already recounted must be 
added others to the credit of the navy. Of the highest 



THE C APT UKE OF JiEW OKLEANS. 



459 



importance was the capture of New Orleans. The river 
approach to New Orleans from the Gulf, by the main chan- 
nel, was defended by two strong forts, — Fort Jackson and 
Fort St. Philip. After an ineffective bombardment from a 
distance, Commodore Farragut, who commanded the naval 
expedition, determined to try the 
hazardous experiment of running 
his fleet past the Forts. It was 
one of those efforts that succeed 
by reason of their surprising 
audacity. The Secessionists had 
obstructed the river below the 
forts by a chain stretched across 
it, and supported by a number 
of old sunken hulks. Farragut 
opened a passage through this 
obstruction, and in the early 
morning his fleet moved up 
toward the Forts in two columns. 

Progress was slow, owing to the darkness, the strong 
current of the river, and the obstacles through which the 
boats had to find their way. 

§ 23. The Vessels Passed the Forts and 'Won the City. 

The ships were soon discovered from the Forts, which 
began firing at them red-hot balls. Union mortar-boats 
below, in a bend of the river, responded with shells, and 
the passing fleet poured grape-shot into the embrasures as 
the boats steamed by. Two of the vessels were caught 
in the barrier ; one was disabled by a heavy shot, but four- 
teen out of seventeen ran by the Forts without receiving 




David Glasgow Farragut. 

Born, I 801 ; died, 1870. 

Admiral. 



460 our nation's wars. 



serious injury. Once above the Forts they had little diffi- 
culty in overcoming the Confederate flotilla, which came 
down to meet them. Then they steamed up to the city, 
which immediately surrendered. Two days later it was 
occupied by the Union army under General Butler. 

§ 24. Ironclads Met for the First Time in the World's 
History. 

Meanwhile the work of organizing the great Army of the 
Potomac had continued. General McClellan was entirely 
at home in that task, but after many months of organization 
and drill, something further was demanded of the one hun- 
dred and fifty thousand fine troops under his command. 

Before McClellan was ready for battle, however, the 
public, and indeed the whole world, was vastly interested in 
a naval contest near Fortress Monroe and Norfolk. The 
Confederates had built, at the Norfolk navy yard, a huge 
craft which they called the Virginia, and which was known 
by the Unionists as the Merrimac. It was, in fact, the 
hull of the United States frigate Merrimac, converted into 
a powerful ram, and sheathed with railroad iron. Its pecu- 
liar build was known and understood by Washington au- 
thorities ; and Captain Ericsson, the great inventor, had 
been authorized to construct a craft to meet it. For months 
preceding the contest, it had been a race between the build- 
ers, and the Merrimac came out one day ahead at Norfolk. 

§ 25. The Confederate Merrimac Destroyed the Cumberland 
and the Congress. 

On the 8th of March, 1862, this terrible vessel, looking 
like a floating mansard roof with a tall iron chimney in the 
middle, steamed out and attacked the fleet of five wooden 



NAVAL WARFARE. 



461 



United States war-ships in Hampton Roads. The Merrimac 
steamed for the Cumberland, the greatest of the fleet, and 
was received with a vigorous cannonade ; but the heaviest 
balls glanced from her sloping sides. She majestically sped 




* 





Fortress Monroe. 



onward, and with her iron beak rammed the unfortunate 
Cumberland with tremendous force. The wooden walls 
crashed inward at the impact, and the Cumberland sank in 
five minutes, with all on board, her colors flying, 

Turning away from her first victim, the Merrimac 
attacked the frigate Congress. The water was too shallow 
w r here the Congress lay to allow the Merrimac to reach 
her with the ram, but the unfortunate vessel was so raked 
by the fire of the Merrimac* 8 guns that she surrendered, 
and the Confederates burned her at once. 



462 



OUR NATIONS WARS. 



And now the United States steam frigate Minnesota, 
twin of the old Merrimac, came down from Fortress Mon- 
roe to take part in the battle. But 
darkness was coming on, and the 
Merrimac retired to Norfolk, ex- 
pecting to finish her destructive 
work on the next day. 

§ 26. The Alarm Spread Throughout 
the Nation. 

This great exploit, telegraphed 
all over the country, caused an in- 
stant panic. It was said that even- 
ing in President Lincoln's Cabinet, 
"It is not unlikely that we shall 
have a shell or a ball from the 
Merrimac in the White House be- 
fore we leave this room." Visions 
of great ransoms frightened the 
home-staying people of our seacoast cities. 




John Ericsson. 

Born in Sweden, 1803; died, 1889. 

Inventor, Screw-propeller, Revolving 

Turret, Self-acting Gun-lock, 

Torpedo-boat. 

of bombardments and 



§ 27. An Uneven Fight Ensued. 

But Ericsson's craft, named the Monitor, with the famous 
Lieutenant Worden in command, had reached the lower 
Chesapeake in time to hear the distant cannonade and to 
see the sky lighted up by the flames of the burning Con- 
gress. The commander's orders took him to the Potomac, 
but what were orders at such a time ! He made for the 
scene of disaster, and when next morning the Merrimac 
came out to finish up the Minnesota, the little Monitor, 
looking, as the spectators said, " like a cheese-box on a raft,' 
steamed out of the lee of the Minnesota and challenged the 






THE REVOLUTION TX 1ST AVAL WARFARE. 



Merrimac to single combat. The battle lasted four hours. 
The Monitor in her revolving turret carried two eleven-inch 
guns. The Merrimac had more guns, but of smaller caliber. 
Both vessels were driven by screw-propellers. The Merrimac 
was twice as long and twice as broad as the Monitor, but un- 
fortunately had lost her ram the preceding day. She drew a 



±** 




Monitor and Merrimac, March 9. 



S62. 



depth of water twice as great as the Monitor, a heavy handicap 
in the James River. The balls of neither made much im- 
pression on the other. The Monitor proved quicker in 
movement. At last one of the Monitor s big balls landed on 
the Merrimac '« water-line, which sprung aleak. The Merri- 
mac's engines were beginning to break down at this time, 
so that she gave up the fight and retired to Norfolk. 

§ 28. Naval Warfare was Revolutionized. 

By this battle AVorden and Ericsson were made heroes 
for all time. Wooden ships of war were at once seen to be 



464 



OUB, STATION S WARS. 



doomed. The Monitor and the Merrimac became the fore- 
runners of the vast fleets of ironclad war-ships that now 
patrol the oceans. These utilize all the good features of 
both the Merrimac and the Monitor types of war-ships, and 
also many new features made possible by the advance in 
science and in the technical arts since 1862. 

Throughout the War, ironclad rams like the Merrimac 
continued to be used by the Confederacy. In the fall of 

1864, Lieutenant 
C ushing perf o r m e d 
the brilliant and haz- 
ardous exploit of 
blowing up with a 
torpedo the terrible 
ram Albemarle of the 
Confederacy upon the 
coast of North Caro- 
lina. The Monitor 
itself proved unsea- 
worth}^, and foun- 
dered off Cape Hat- 
teras the last day of 
this very year. But 
Ne\v York City had 
been saved. 

Had not Lincoln 

alone of men in high 

The war in Virgmia. Government station 

encouraged Ericsson, the Merrimac would have raised the 

blockade of the Atlantic and the Gulf, Europe might have 

recognized the Confederacy, and possibly the issue of the 




THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN. 465 



war might have been different. Never was relief more 
opportune, for the opening of the Southern ports and the 
recognition of the Confederate States of America as a 
nation meant exports and imports, money, supplies, foreign 
loans, and encouragement from Europe. This battle was 
indeed the first great crisis of the War, which turned against 
the Confederacy and for the Union, foreshadowing the end. 
§ 29. The Confederates Withdrew from Yorktown. 

In striking contrast with this brilliant and rapid naval 
episode, and far less significant in that it accomplished 
nothing decisive, and was merely a link in the weary pro- 
cess of wearing out the Confederates, was the conflict in 
Virginia. McClellan had under him a large army which 
he had organized and drilled into good form. He was a 
young man of magnetic qualities, and his soldiers were 
singularly devoted to him. But unlike the great leaders 
who were to come out of the West, Grant and Sherman, 
McClellan was early placed in too important a post. 
He lacked certain great battle-qualities, was too cautious, 
and valued too highly the lives of his men. The authori- 
ties at Washington desired him to advance directly over- 
land and to take Richmond, keeping his army between the 
enemy and Washington. 

But this route was rough, and intersected by a dozen 
rivers and streams. McClellan preferred to carry liis army 
by water to Fortress Monroe, and to move on Richmond by 
the York Peninsula. The authorities at Washington de- 
cided to let him do this, but to keep a part of the army 
under McDowell in front of Washington at Fredericks- 
burg, and another army under Banks in the Shenandoah 
Valley. Yorktown, of Revolutionary fame, was the first 



466 our nation's wars. 



fortified position of the Secessionists on the way from 
Fortress Monroe to Richmond. It was attacked early 
in April by McClellan's army. After a month's siege, the 
Confederates abandoned it, and retired towards Rich- 
mond. 
§ 30. The Nationals Won the Dreadful Battle of Fair Oaks. 

McClellan's army, in following up the Confederates, was 
brought into a dangerous position, with one half of the men 
on the south side of the Chickahominy River, and the other 
half on the north side. General Joseph E. Johnston seized 
the opportunity to attack the Federal forces on the southern 
side of the river, after a sudden rise in the waters made 
crossing very difficult. In the bloody battle of Fair Oaks 
he certainly would have overwhelmed them, had not Gen- 
eral Sumner of the Federals succeeded in crossing the river 
with his division and in attacking the Confederates in 
the rear. This turned the tide of battle. Johnston was 
wounded, and the Confederates were put to flight. 

There was now an opportunity to press forward and to 
besiege Richmond, but McClellan, with almost half his 
army, kept to the north side of the river. The impetuous 
brio-adier-s^enerals Sickles and Meagher were within three 
miles of Richmond when they were called back, instead of 
being supported by thirty thousand fresh troops as they 
might have been. 



§ 31. McClellan Executed a Masterly Retreat from Before 
Richmond, "Winning a Great Victory. 

McClellan, who always appeared to better advantage in 
defense than in attack, now gave the Confederates time to 
reorganize ; then he settled down to the siege of Richmond. 



MALVERX HILL. 467 



Robert E. Lee, after the disabling of Johnston, took the 
Confederate command. This was the Lee to whom Lincoln 
had offered the second position in the Union army at the 
very beginning of the War, but who, opposing slavery as a 
blight to the South, after a long struggle with himself, felt 
that he must follow his native State of Virginia, his kin, 
and his friends, out of the Union and into the Confed- 
eracy. How different - might have been the history of the 
War, if Lee had not given to the cause of slavery and 
secession the moral support of his noble character, the 
influence of his great family name, and the power of his 
matured military genius ! 

While McClellan was besieging Richmond, Stonew T all 
Jackson came forward with his army. McClellan heard of 
this re-enforcement, and knew he must fall back. He exe- 
cuted a masterly retreat. Instead of backing out by the 
way he came, as the Confederates expected, he crossed the 
Chickahominy with his entire army, and made for the James 
river, there to establish a new base of supplies. He fought 
several battles by the way, and won a distinct victory over 
Lee at Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862, the last of the great 
Seven Days' Battles, in which McClellan lost 15,000 and 
Lee 20,000 men. 

In this retreat, McClellan successfully misled Stonewall 
Jackson, outgeneraled Lee, and inflicted heavier losses than 
he suffered. Once on the James river at Harrison's Land- 
ing, he intrenched himself with his army of eighty thousand 
men. He expected to receive re-enforcements, and to move 
up the James against Richmond. 

In the end McClellan had won most of the battles, but 
had lost the campaign. 



468 



OUR NATION S WARS. 




§ 32. Union Generals were Rapidly Changed. 
But now Halleck, shining in the glory of the Western 
Army, was called to Washington and made General-in- 
Chief, another experiment in 
the long and costly process of 
selecting generals. The South 
had the good fortune to find 
her best ■ generals early in the 
War. Lee and Johnston were at 
the head of affairs long before 
Grant and Sherman controlled 
the Federal armies. 

Halleck's first move was to 
order General Pope east from 
Tennessee to take command of 
the newly organized Army of 
Virginia. Pope was a vigorous 
leader, but no match in strategy for General Stonewall 
Jackson. In less than a month the Confederates so tangled 
Pope in the campaign of northern Virginia that he had to 
be helped out of his difficulties by his superiors. McClellan 
was ordered back to Washington with his troops, and put 
in command of the combined forces. 

§ 33. Antietam Turned Back the Invasion. 
The defeat of Pope led to the invasion of Maryland by 
Lee. The Confederates looked for hospitality, supplies, 
and recruits in that slave-holding State, which they felt was 
theirs by right. But the prudence of the Marylanders 
was far more in evidence than were their Southern sympa- 
thies. The Confederates did not meet with an encourag- 
ing reception despite the popularity of that famous and 



Thomas J. Jackson. 

Born, 1824; accidentally killed, 1863 

Lieutenant, Mexican War: General, 

Confederate Army. 



ANTIETAM AND FREDERICKSBURG. 469 



beautiful Southern song, " Maryland, my Maryland." This 
had been written by an Atlanta journalist, born in Mary- 
land, who hoped to rouse his native State. 

The great army was carefully watched by McClellan, and 
September 17, 1862, the battle of Antietam creek occurred, at 
Sharpsburg, about forty miles northwest of Washington, and 
due north of Harper's Ferry. McClellan took the offensive, 
to drive the invaders out of Maryland. The result was a 
drawn battle. There was no driving out of the invaders. 
They took their time, and crossed the Potomac into Vir- 
ginia without molestation. In the battle at Antietam creek, 
McClellan commanded eighty-seven thousand men, Lee 
about fifty-five thousand. It was a dreadful and bloody 
fight, in which nearly a dozen generals were killed or se- 
verely wounded. The Federal loss was about twelve thou- 
sand five hundred, the Confederate, eleven thousand. 
§ 34. The Terrible Union Defeat at Fredericksburg. 
Some weeks later, McClellan crossed the Potomac into 
Virginia. But he was not aggressive, and President Lin- 
coln, urged by Stanton, Secretary of War, after much de- 
liberation, removed him from command and put General 
Burnside in his place. This was a change from excessive 
caution to utter recklessness, and the unfortunate Army 
of the Potomac suffered for it. Burnside at once marched 
the army to Fredericksburg on the Rappahannock, and 
attacked that impregnable position, occasioning the slaugh- 
ter of thirteen thousand of his men. He meant to try the 
same thing over again next day, but his subordinate gen- 
erals advised the contrary. He had lost the confidence 
of his army, and at his own request was relieved of the 
command, " Fighting Joe, Hoofer ?? took his place* 



470 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



§ 35. A New Union Commander Lost Another Campaign. 

This was the fifth change in the leadership of the Army 
of the Potomac. Hooker was a favorite among the men, 
with a record that inspired confidence. He took hold of 
the army demoralized by the Fredericksburg disaster, and 
in a short time brought it into good order. So lax had 
been its discipline that half or more of its numbers, officers 
and men, figured at times as absentees ; but by April, 
Hooker had the army ready for work, and began what is 
known as the Chancellorsville Campaign. Hooker, like 
Pope, lacked sufficient ability to be a great commander. 
Lee and Jackson outgeneraled him as they had Pope. A 

serious physical injury from a 
cannon-shot disabled him at the 
very crisis of the battle. With 
an army not much more than half 
the size of Hooker's, Lee always 
managed to have more troops at 
the fighting points of contact. In 
ten days he drove Hooker back to 
his old camps for safety. But in 
this campaign Stonewall Jackson 
was killed by the unfortunate fire 
of his own men. This was an ir- 
reparable loss to the Confederacy. 




Robert Edward Lee. 
Born, 1807 ; died, 1870. 
General Confederate Army : Captain, 
Mexican War: President, Washing- 
ton College, Virginia. 



§ 36. Vicksburg Fell in the West, 
and Gettysburg was "Won in the 
East at the Same Time. 

Then Lee began his second northern invasion. McClellan 
had fought Lee at Antietam. Meade, a cautious com- 
mander like McClellan, superseded Hooker, and fought Lee 



471 



at Gettysburg. In each case Lee, being upon unfamiliar 
ground,' was beaten, and forced to retreat. The Gettysburg 
campaign occurred Avhile the Union army was winning great 
victories in the West. 

Already the agricultural and financial resources of the 
South were becoming exhausted. Lee had hoped to get 
abundant supplies for his army from the rich harvests of 
Maryland and Pennsylvania, and to secure immense sums 
of money as ransoms for keeping cities from pillage. He 
even hoped to take Philadelphia and Washington. 

§ 37. A Great Battle was Fought at Stone's River. 

After the fall of Corinth, Grant went to Memphis, taking 
Sherman with him to complete the task of opening the 
Mississippi. Meanwhile General Bragg, who had succeeded 
Beauregard, planned an invasion of Kentucky, and started 
north from Chattanooga. Buell, Avho was holding Tennessee, 
undertook to repel the invasion at the battle of Perryville, 
tactically a drawn battle. This occurred forty miles south- 
east of the city of Louisville, which Bragg greatly desired 
to capture and plunder. Bragg retreated through Cum- 
berland Gap and thence to Chattanooga, and Buell moved 
toward Nashville. Later his place was taken by General 
Rosecrans, who, under the direction of Grant, had accom- 
plished brilliant successes in the battles of luka and Corinth. 
Buell was a good organizer and disciplinarian, but not an 
energetic or aggressive fighter. 

December 31 and January 2, Rosecrans and Bragg fought 
one of the heaviest battles of the war at Stone's River. 
More than twenty thousand men were killed and wounded 
in this engagement. Bragg retired from the field after the 
second clav, and retreated twentv-five miles southward. 



472 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



§ 38. Grant Undertook the Capture of Vicksburg, a Most 
Difficult Enterprise. 

In November, 1862, Halleck, General-in-Chief at Wash- 
ington, put all the forces in the Department of the South- 
west under the orders of General Grant, and told him to 

fight the enemy where 
he pleased. Grant wanted 
Vicksburg and the Mis- 
sissippi; but the Con- 
federates had now made 
Vicksburg one of the 
strongest military posi- 
tions in the West, and its 
capture was a most diffi- 
cult undertaking. 

Vicksburg was a city 
set upon a hill about two 
hundred feet above the 
river. As seen from the 
Mississippi on the west, 
and from the marshes of 
The vicksburg Campaign. the Yazoo, which bordered 

it on the north, the hill was very steep, worn away from 
below by river currents, by overflows, and by the action of 
rain and wind, until it had become a precipice, or bluff. 
Perched upon this bluff, and well fortified, Vicksburg defied 
assault on the west and north. Grant's first effort against 
the city was from his base at Holly Springs, Mississippi, 
but the route was difficult, transportation facilities were bad, 
and his base of supplies at Holly Springs was captured by 
a raid of Confederate cavalry, He was obliged to fall back. 




VICKSBURG. 473 



Sherman had already been ordered down the river from 
Memphis to attack Vicksburg, and Grant followed him 
by the same route. 

§ 39. Pemberton was Forced into Vicksburg. 

Some thirteen miles above Vicksburg, where the bluffs 
extend inland to the Yazoo River, is a point called Haines' 
Bluff. Sherman made a brave effort to get his troops up 
at this point, but failed ; for the bluffs were well defended, 
and the ascent was almost perpendicular. Thus Grant- and 
Sherman were unsuccessful in their first efforts against 
Vicksburg. Finally, after trying all methods of approach 
from the north and west, Grant decided to march his army 
down the west side of the river, to cross over below the city, 
and to attempt its capture from the south and east. 

It was a difficult route, and Grant's daring plan was not 
in accord with the ordinary rules of military strategy. He 
crossed the river forty miles below Vicksburg, cut loose from 
an insecure base of supplies, and, with a few days' rations, 
marched to find Pemberton, the Confederate general Avho 
was in charge of the defense of Vicksburg. He defeated a 
part of Pemberton's army at Port Gibson, ten miles inland. 
In a second battle at Raymond and in a third at Jackson, 
part of General Joseph E. Johnston's army was worsted 
and compelled to flee. 

Sherman now joined Grant, and a new base of supplies 
was established. While Sherman tore up the railroads 
about Jackson, Grant turned westward, and defeated Pem- 
berton once at Champion's Hill, and again the next day at 
the bridge over the Big Black river. Then Pemberton 
retired into Vicksburg and evacuated Haines' Bluff, since 



474 



OUR NATION S AVARS. 



that point was no longer tenable. Thus was an apparently im- 
possible enterprise successfully begun, hi eleven days Grant 
had marched two hundred miles, had fought five battles against 
two armies, and had driven Pemberton into Vicksburg. 

§ 40. After a Six "Weeks' Siege Vicksburg Surrendered. 

After two assaults, which failed, Vicksburg was closely 
besieged, and in six weeks the city was starved out. Pem- 
berton surrendered with over thirty thousand men as pris- 




At the Siege of Vicksburg. 

oners of war, July 4, 1863.. Port Hudson, a strongly forti- 
fied position on the river one hundred and twenty-five miles 
below, surrendered to General Banks with six thousand pris- 
oners. Grant had won the greatest military success of the 
war. The Confederates had lost over sixty thousand men 
in defending the Mississippi, and the Confederacy was cut 
in two. In the language of President Lincoln, " The Father 
of Waters rolled unvexed to the sea. ? ' 



GETTYSBURG. 475 

The campaign against Vicksburg was over seven months 
long, and involved the greatest difficulties, but the results 
well repaid the time and effort. Grant was at once made a 
Major-General in the regular army, and thereafter was rec- 
ognized as the most prominent and successful Union leader. 

Coincident with this amazing success in the West, the 
tremendous battle of Gettysburg occurred in the East. 
§ 41. The First Day's Fighting at Gettysburg. 

Lee's invasion through Maryland and into Pennsylvania 
was repulsed at Gettysburg, and the possibility of danger to 
Washington and Baltimore passed away. There was a pre- 
liminary battle on July 1st, in which two corps of the 
Federal army, under Meade, were driven by the vanguard 
of Lee's army south through the town of Gettysburg, and 
forced to occupy at the close of the day a ridge known as 
Cemetery Hill. At this time of partial disaster, General 
Hancock rode over from the main body of the army ten 
miles away. His cheery presence and skillful directions put 
heart into the troops. Soon afterward, Sickles and Slocum 
with their divisions arrived, and strengthened the position 
on the Hill, fortifying Little Round Top under the skillful 
guidance of Warren, the military engineer. 

Lee did not push his success on the first day, but placed 
his army on Seminary Ridge running parallel with the Fed- 
eral lines on Cemetery Hill, and about a mile distant. There 
he waited for Longstreet's corps to come up. Hancock, giv- 
ing over the command to Slocum, galloped off in the direc- 
tion of Tarrytown, Meade's headquarters. Meeting his 
own corps a few miles away, he ordered them into easy 
supporting distance of Slocum, and then hurried to General 
Meade. On hearing of the critical situation, Meade at once 



476 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



moved up to the Ridge with his forces ; and two corps, com- 
manded by Sykes and Sedgwick, miles away, were sent for 
with all haste. 

§ 42. On the Second Day the Issue was Indecisive. 
On the morning of July 2 the two armies faced each 
other, and a day of terrible slaughter on both sides began. 

Meade had under him 
ninety thousand troops, 
Lee eighty thousand, the 
largest army ever brought 
together by the Confed- 
eracy. Meade decided to 
fight a defensive battle, 
and had the advantage in 
position and numbers. If 
Lee wished to fight, he 
must begin. After the 
victories of Fredericksburg 
and Chancellorsville it was 
a moral impossibility for 
Lee to go back without a 
fight. His plan of battle 
was simple ; he attacked first one end and then the other of 
the Federal line, with but slight success ; on the right he took 
a part of Meade's defenses, but only to have them recaptured 
on the morning of July 3. In a little wheatfield of seventy- 
five acres lay seven thousand dead that awful morning. 

§ 43. On the Third Day the Unionists Won the Victory. 
On the afternoon of the third day of the battle, General 
Lee, having been unable to turn either flank of Meade's 




GETTYSBURG. 



477 



army, decided that he must assault its center or withdraw. 
About one o'clock the decisive hour struck. Lee ordered 
General Pickett with his Virginia troops to attack the 
Union center. Fourteen thousand men, the flower of the 
army, in a front a mile wide, charged across the valley and 
up Cemetery Hill. First, the Federal artillery wrought 
havoc among them ; then, as they neared the lines, the rifles 
from front and flank poured out a deadly fire. With fast 




At the Crest of Pickett's Charge. 



thinning ranks the Confederates pressed on up the slope, 
and a gallant few broke the first Federal line. The Con- 
federate General Armistead, who was leading the assault, 
waving his hat on the point of his sword, fell with a bul- 
let through his heart. His men were driven back with 



478 



our nation's wars. 



frightful loss, and the fight was over. In this tremen- 
dous battle, the greatest of the War, the Federals lost 
twenty-three thousand men, the Confederates over twenty 
thousand and six thousand prisoners. 

Gettysburg in the East, and Vicksburg in the West, 
marked the second crisis of the war, and the Fourth of 
July, 1863, was the most notable in the history of the 
Republic. To-day a monument marks the spot where the 
tide of Pickett's charge swept up Cemetery Hill. All the 
battlefield is marked with monuments. 

§ 44. Rosecrans's Campaign upon the Tennessee River. 
During the campaign of Grant against Vicksburg, the 
Army of the Cumberland under Rosecrans had been waiting 

quietly at Murfreesboro, fac- 
ing the Confederate Bragg. 
Grant wished Rosecrans to 
attack Bragg so as to prevent 
the sending of re-enforcements 
to the relief of Vicksburg. 
Towards July, Rosecrans was 
compelled to move. He had 
seventy thousand men, and 
Bragg at Shelbyville had forty- 
seven thousand. Rosecrans, 
with the assistance of Thomas, 
who commanded his left wing, 
skilfully maneuvered Bragg 
out of Shelbyville and Tulla- 
homa, his depot of supplies, 
and in nine days forced him over the mountains and across 
the Tennessee to Chattanooga. 




Johnny Clem, the Twelve-year Old Drum- 
mer Boy, Who to Save Himself from 
Being Made Prisoner, Shot a Confederate 
Colonel. 



CHICKAMAUGA. 



4T9 



§ 45. Thomas at Chickamauga. 

In a rough and mountainous country, Bragg was forced 
out of Chattanooga by flank movements in August, but 
later Rosecrans misjudged the Confederate movements. He 
was taken at a disadvantage in the battle of Chickamauga, 
and a part of his army was defeated September 20, 1863. 




Battle of Chickamauga. 

But the left wing, under Thomas, together with several 
regiments from the center and the right, made a magnificent 
stand that saved the defeat from becoming a rout, and 
earned for him the title, " The Rock of Chickamauga." The 
Federal loss was 12,000, and the Confederate loss some- 
what more. Rosecransre tired into Chattanooga ; and Bragg, 
who before the battle had been re-enforced by Longstreet 
from Virginia, unsuccessfully besieged the town. 



480 oue Nation's wabs. 



§ 46, Grant Took Command at Chattanooga. 
A month later Grant was pnt in command of all the 
Federal forces between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi. 
His first official action w^as to relieve Rosecrans from 
command of the Army of the Cumberland, and to put 
Thomas in his place. Sherman, now in command of the 
Army of the Tennessee, was brought up from Vicksburg ; 
Hooker had been sent from Virginia with re-enforcements 
for Chattanooga ; and Grant himself took command of the 
combined forces at Chattanooga. 

The battle that w r as fought about Chattanooga was the 
most picturesque and interesting of the entire war. It is 
also remarkable as the battle in which five famous Federal 
generals were engaged, — Grant, Sherman, Thomas, Sheri- 
dan, and Hooker. The battle was tactically complicated by 
rivers, ridges, gorges, and mountains. It was a series of 
separate engagements covering at least fifty square miles of 
territory, and lasting three days, November 23, 24, 25. 
§ 47. A Great and Critical Victory Was Won. 
Hooker reached the upper slopes of Lookout Mountain 
and drove Bragg's left from every position, fighting his 
surprising " Battle above the Clouds." Thomas, with 
twenty-three thousand men in a charging front two and a 
half miles long, attacked the field-works at the foot of 
Mission Ridge and captured them ; and his enthusiastic 
troops, not satisfied with that, pressed on and up and 
swarmed over the top of the Ridge itself, sweeping the 
Confederates off and down the other side. This charge was 
the grandest spectacle of all the War. 

Sherman struck heavy blows at the north end of the Ridge ; 
Thomas made the great charge ; and Grant supervised 



CHATTAXOOGA. 481 

the whole. It was a splendid victory for the Federals, 
purchased at the cost of six thousand men in killed and 
wounded. At Chattanooga the Federals broke through the 
Southern defense of the Alleghanies. Henceforth the great 
operations of the war did not concern the West so much as 
the East. The turning of the great Alleghany range had 
begun, and the area of the Confederacy was practically 
cut down to four States, — Georgia, the Carolinas, and Vir- 
ginia, of which the first and the last suffered most from war. 
§ 48. Grant Took Entire Control of the Union Armies. 

In March, 1864, Grant was made Lieutenant-General, in 
command of all the armies of the United States. He imme- 
diately placed Sherman in command of the Armies of the 
Tennessee, the Cumberland, and the Ohio, — practically all 
the Federal troops that had been operating in the South 
and West. The final moyements of the War then began. 
Sherman, gathering his forces, conducted a fine strategic 
campaign against the Confederate, Joseph Johnston, who 
had superseded Bragg after the battle of Chattanooga. 

§ 49. Sherman Won Atlanta, the Center of the Confederacy. 

After engaging Johnston in three terrible battles, at Re- 
saca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain, Sherman threatened' 
Atlanta. The desperate Confederacy then placed Hood in 
command. It was a change for the worse. Johnston was 
a fine tactician, Hood a reckless fighter. He made two 
unsuccessful attacks upon Sherman, and then abandoned 
Atlanta, which was occupied by the Federal forces Septem- 
ber 2, 1864. Since Mobile had been taken by Farragut, 
in August, the hope of the Confederacy to win in the War 
was now utterly baseless. 



482 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



§ 50. The March to the Sea Cut in Two the Remaining Half 
of the Confederacy. 

After the capture of Atlanta, Hood moved northwest- 
ward into middle Tennessee. Sherman sent back a part of 
his army under Thomas to Nashville to resist Hood's north- 
ward march. Then, November 15, cutting loose from his 
base of supplies, he struck out on his famous march " from 
Atlanta to the Sea " with sixty-two thousand men. 




SCALE OF MILE8 



Sherman's March to the Sea. 



It was a military adventure of a month, with no enemy 
in sight, and a rich country to ravage. Sherman's soldiers 
lived on the fat of the land, and the cattle-pens and hen- 
roosts within twenty-five miles on each side of the route 
suffered. Railroads were torn up, bridges were burned, mili- 
tary supplies were captured, houses were ransacked, and 



NASHVILLE. 483 



nothing was left behind that could aid an army. Decem- 
ber 10, 1864, Sherman arrived at Savannah, and on the 
20th, Hardee, the Confederate commander, evacuated the 
place with his forces and retreated to Charleston. The Con- 
federacy was again cut in two ; and the hopelessness of its 
condition was demonstrated to the world. 

§ 51. Thomas Won a Great Victory at Nashville. 

Meantime Hood, when he found that Sherman was out of 
reach, planned to attack Thomas. Hood, who had been 
checked in his advance by Schofield, had collected an army 
of about forty thousand men. He attacked Schofield at 
Franklin where he was defeated in one of the most awful 
battles of the war. Schofield immediately fell back upon 
Thomas at Nashville, followed by Hood. 

Thomas, who had won Mill Springs and saved Chicka- 
mauga, was now to have his grand opportunity ; and he 
took his time in preparing for it. The Washington author- 
ities became anxious, and urged him to action. Thomas 
calmly waited, and intimated that he would resign if they 
so wished, but that he would not strike until he was ready. 
His last wait was for the glare ice to melt, after a heavy 
sleet storm. Then he moved, just at the time when an 
order was given to General Logan to go and take his place ; 
but Thomas then made a movement the most sudden, suc- 
cessful, and brilliant of the entire War. Falling upon Hood, 
December 15 and 16, he outflanked, outmaneuvered, and 
totally defeated him in a clean-cut battle which cost Hood 
twenty thousand men, and made of the rest of his army 
a disorganized, disheartened rabble. This battle practically 
ended the conflict in the South. Thomas's work was done, 
his fame as a great general secure. 



484 our nation's wars. 



§ 52. "I will Fight it Out," said Grant. 

In March, 1864, Grant faced the problem, which had 
proved too knotty for all the earlier Union generals in that 
field, of crushing Lee and the Army of Virginia. He knew 
well Lee's ability as a strategist and tactician and his genius 
as a leader of men. He felt that Lee with his knowledge 
of the country had the advantage, and resolved by direct 
assaults with his vastly superior forces to wear him out. 

This was the man who as a young lieutenant in the 
Mexican War had criticised the Mexicans for not finishing 
their battles. " They begin well," he said. Sixteen years 
had passed, and Grant now declared, " I will fight it out on 
this line, if it takes all summer." He made war systematic 
manslaughter, and by " hammering " finally crushed the 
Confederacy. Grant was the one great Federal leader who 
fully realized the enormous resources of the Union and 
used them. Grant secured all that McClellan asked for 
and more than he received. The difference between them 
was that Grant spent rather than saved his soldiers while 
McClellan tried to avoid bloodshed. 
§ 53. Awful Bloodshed Followed in the Virginia Slaughter-pen. 

Grant entered Virginia with one hundred and twenty 
thousand men, and advanced against Lee from Culpeper 
through the Wilderness to the Chickahominy, fighting 
the fearful battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania, 
undergoing the disaster at Cold Harbor, which suggests 
in its character Burnside's blunder and slaughter at Freder- 
icksburg, and losing sixty-four thousand men. Lee lost 
about half as many. Re-enforcements poured in on both 
sides. Grant crossed the James river with his army, went 
around Richmond, and besieged Petersburg. 



IN THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY. 



485 



§ 54. Early and Sheridan Met at Cedar Creek. 

During the tedious siege of Petersburg, Lee sent his 
famous cavalry leader, Early, on a raid through the 
Shenandoah valley, — that convenient avenue of attack 
northward. Early rushed through the valley, caused a 
panic in Washington, which he might have entered, had he 
been a trifle quicker, raided into Pennsylvania, tried to 
levy five hundred thousand dollars ransom on the town of 
Chambersburg, and burned the 
town because it would not or 
could not pay. Then he returned 
into the Shenandoah with horses 
and cattle and plunder. 

This was an exasperating affair, 
and Grant retaliated by sending 
Sheridan into the Shenandoah 
valley with orders to devastate 
the whole region, so that the 
Confederates could no longer use 
it as a base of supplies. This 
was a move similar to Sherman's 
march. Sheridan's army en- 
tered the valley at Harper's Ferry, and, moving slowly up 
to the head, defeated Early's troops in two battles, driv- 
ing the Confederates out. Then retracing his course, Sher- 
idan carried off all the cattle and sheep, burned seventy 
grist-mills and two thousand barns filled with hay and 
grain, and left the beautiful valley as bare as a desert. 

Not long after this exploit, Lee ordered Early with 
re-enforcements to re-occupy the valley, which, though a 
waste, still had value as a military avenue. On the 19th of 




Philip Sheridan. 

Born ; I 83 I ; died, I 888. 

Union General. 



486 



OUH NATION S WAES. 



October, Early surprised the Federals at Cedar Creek, while 
Sheridan was twenty miles away beyond Winchester. This 
was the occasion of the famous ride of Sheridan to the 
battlefield where by his valor and leadership upon the field 
rout was turned to a victory celebrated in song and story. 

§ 55. The "War was Being Wound to its Close. 
Early's army was now wrecked. He had lost almost 
twenty-five thousand men in killed, wounded, and captured. 
The Federals had lost somewhat less than twenty thousand, 

and victory 




had followed 
their banners. 
Both Sheridan 
and Early now 
returned to the 
field of opera- 
tions about 
Richmond and 
Petersburg, 
while Sherman 
was making his 
way upward 
through the 
Carol i na s , 
where he de- 
feated John- 
ston several 

20 40 SO VM 

times. This 
march north from Charleston was one of great hardship, 
through swamps and across rivers in a thinly settled country. 
The end of the War appeared to be near at hand. Lee's army 



Union Forces 



Confederate • 



SCALE OF MILES 



THE EXHAUSTED CONFEDERACY. 487 

was wasting away. Some deserted, more died, or were dis- 
abled ; and the South in 1865 could furnish no more recruits. 
There were not even boys or old men, out of whom to make an 
army. Nor were there guns and powder with which to equip 
them for battle. The people of the South recognized sooner 
than their leaders that the War was practically over. 

§ 56. Lee Surrendered the Brave Army of Virginia, April 9, 1865. 

Lee could expect no further re-enforcements, and had no 

















< '*" "~i 




'■ 








..:.-■■ 








1 waBlBM 












: 




■; ■'■■;-■ 


■■..•:.:■ 
























m> 






' 








■'."'"'. ^^wtst 











Surrender of General Lee to General Grant. 



place of retreat except the mountains. His commissariat 
was in a condition of collapse, and the financial means of 
carrying on the struggle were completely exhausted. The 
South, in fact, was worn out, and crushed rather than 
defeated. On April 9, 1865, Lee, seeing that escape into 
the mountains was useless, surrendered the heroic Army 
of Virginia to Grant at Appomattox Court House. 



488 our nation's wars. 



§ 57. Other Surrenders Followed. 

On April 26, Johnston surrendered to Sherman at Golds- 
boro, North Carolina. In April, General Wilson with 
fourteen thousand cavalry took Montgomery, Alabama, and 
Columbus, and Macon, Georgia, destroying the Confederate 
manufacturies of war-supplies ; and on May 10 captured 
Jefferson Davis, the fugitive President of the fallen Con- 
federacy. On the 4th of May, General Taylor surrendered 
all the remaining Confederate forces east of the Mississippi, 
and on the 26th General Kirby Smith surrendered all re- 
maining forces west of the great river. It is said that the 
last shot of the War of Secession was fired in Texas near 
Palo Alto on the Rio Grande, on the 13th of May, 1865. 
There the Mexican War had begun. 

§ 58. The Navy Effectually Blockaded Southern Ports. 

Throughout this great struggle the navy rendered efficient 
and important service. To Farragut was due the taking 
of New Orleans in 1862, and the victory in Mobile Bay in 
August, 1861. These were heroic exploits. Farragut, 
lashed in the rigging of his flagship, the Hartford, the little 
man making there an immortal picture of heroism, entered 
Mobile Bay at the head of his fleet of four ironclads and 
thirteen wooden ships, and attacked the three forts and seven 
Confederate vessels. In ten days' fighting he succeeded in 
sealing up that port against English blockade-runners. In 
December, 1864, and January, 1865, David D. Porter, son 
of the famous David Porter of the War of 1812, who swept 
the Pacific of British whalers, succeeded in capturing Fort 
Fisher at Wilmington, North Carolina, the last harbor of 
the Confederacy open to the blockade-runners. 






THE VALUE OF THE NAVY. 489 



§ 59. The Navy Destroyed the Confederate Privateers. 

To the navy was due the starving out of the Confederacy 
through its inability to get military supplies from Europe. 
To it was due also the destruction of the Confederate priva- 
teers built in British ports, and manned chiefly by British 
sailors. In 1864, Captain Winslow, in the Kearsarge, de- 
stroyed off Cherbourg, France, the last great privateer, the 
Alabama, Semmes of Maryland, commander. It was esti- 
mated that each of two of these privateers, the Alabama 
and the Shenandoah, destroyed over six million dollars' 
worth of American shipping and cargoes, while the Florida 
destroyed over three million dollars' worth. 

The great War of Secession was indeed chiefly a land 
war, but the reason why it was such a war was the 
immediate and almost complete supremacy of the Union 
navy upon the seas. The Confederate Commissioners in 
Europe were systematic in their efforts to embarrass the 
operations of the Union navy and of ordinary commerce, con- 
stantly hoping sooner or later to win international recogni- 
tion of the independence of the Confederacy. Had this not 
been prevented by the diplomacy of the National Govern- 
ment, the seas would soon have swarmed with privateers 
and warships as well, for such recognition would have un- 
locked the treasures of European bankers eager for the 
great gains of war-loans and of privateering. 
§ 60. Union Prisoners Suffered Horribly in Confederate Pens. 

It is not possible to complete the military story of this great 
War without comment upon the darker aspects of the fearful 
struggle. Upon both sides prisoners were taken. The 
Confederacy — almost from the first in need of money, and 
from the very first conscious of the fact that all its strength 



490 



OUR NATIONS WARS. 




of fighting-men must be sent to the front — maintained 
prisons and prison-pens that were often scenes of horror. 

The most famous of 
the prisons was Libby 
Prison in Richmond, 
Virginia, an old to- 
bacco warehouse in 
which at times as 
many as three thou- 
sand men were kept 
— B ■ - I 8 1 at once. The most in- 

Exterior Libby Prison. famOUS of the prisOU- 

pens was at Andersonville, Georgia, where a twenty-seven- 
acre field was palisaded and guarded by the Confederates. 
There in August, 1864, were confined thirty-three thou- 
sand prisoners. So grossly inhuman was their treatment, 
that when the war was over the National Government 
tried and hanged the 
superintendent. 

The only bright- 
spots in the dark story 
of these prisons are 
the occasional escapes. 
From Andersonville, 
by successful tunnel- 
ing, an average of one 
man in every two thou- 
sand prisoners finally 
escaped. More than a quarter of all the prisoners died 
there. Thousands on thousands who survived their confine- 
ment in these prisons were hopelessly wrecked in health. 




Interior Libby Prison. 



THE BLUE A^D THE GKAY. 491 



The defenses of the needless severity of the treatment 
of Union prisoners were " military necessity," the desire 
to awaken terror of the Confederacy, the hope of reducing 
the number of men to be exchanged, the poverty of the 
South, in the baser men the evil spirit of revenge, and in 
the worst and last days of the dying Government, the 
knowledge that Union prisoners were few and Confederate 
prisoners were many. Even exchanges would have left no 
Union and many Confederate soldiers in prison. 

§ 61. There was and is Little Personal Ill-will between the 
Blue and the Gray. 

Upon the Union side, well supplied as it was with money 
and merchandise, the war was conducted more mercifully. 
There were nurses to care for the wounded soldiers in good 
hospitals. Prisons were decently maintained. Competent 
medical and surgical attendance was usually near at hand. 
As far as war could be humane in the years 1861-1865, at 
that stage of medical knowledge, the war was humane. 
This was equally true upon the actual fields of conflict, on 
the Confederate as well as the National side. In times of 
truce the " Yankees," " the Blue " and the " Johnnies," " the 
Gray," exchanged food, water, whiskey, and tobacco. It 
was this mutual kindness of the soldier " boys " that pre- 
vented " hard feeling " from continuing long after the War, 
and led finally to the general restoration of fellowship 
North and South. 

§ 62. Summary of Results. 

On both sides it had been a war of the youth of the land. 
In its later years half of the " men " of the armies, North 
and South, were not yet twenty one years old. The aver- 
age age of the soldiers of Hood's army in the summer of 



492 our nation's wars. 



1864 was but eighteen years. Throughout the War most 
of the generals were young men: Hood was but thirty- 
three years of age in 1864. There were brigadier generals 
under thirty, colonels and majors under twenty-five, and 
captains too young to vote. The North had many recruits 
from foreign immigrants, and enlisted after the Emancipation 
Proclamation over a hundred thousand colored soldiers. 

The War cost the Nation approximately the lives of one 
million men, rather more in the North than in the South. 
From her military population the South lost nearly one-half, 
and the North about one-ninth. Never was a more gallant 
fight than that of the South. The Confederates fought 
until there was nothing more with which to fight. When 
the War was over, it was thoroughly over. 

ARMY ORGANIZATION AND OFFICERS. 

Companies 10 (more or less), each of 100 men (or less) form a Regiment. 

Regiments, 3-5 (more or less) form a Brigade. 

Brigades, 2 (or more) form a Corps. 

Corps, 2 (or more) form a Division (if any). 

Divisions, 2 (or more, if any) form an Army. 

Captains (and lieutenants) command Companies. 

Colonels (and lieutenant-colonels and majors) command Regiments. 

Generals (Brigadier) command Brigades. 

Generals (major) command Corps, Divisions, and Armies. 

SECESSION. 

The ' ' Lost Cause " was not the cause of slavery but of State 
sovereignty, the right to secede from the Union when dissatisfied. 
Four-fifths of the Confederate soldiers owned no slaves. Histori- 
cally their opinion was a mistake, for the Union of the people pre- 
ceded the formation of the original thirteen States out of the former 
Colonies, as Lincoln argued in the first inaugural. Geographically 
the opinion meant constant warfare upon this Continent. Philo- 
sophically, nullification and secession, the ideas of Calhoun, greatest 
of Southern statesmen, meant anarchy, for if a State may secede, why 
not a County ? If a County may secede, why not a Town ? If a 
Town may secede, why may not an individual be a law unto himself ? 



SUMMARY OF THE WAR OF SECESSION. 



493 




SUMMARY BY YEARS. 

1861-1865. 

General Statement. 
The War of Secession lasted a few days less than Lin- 
coln's Administration, which began with his first inaugura- 
tion, March 4, 1861, and ended 
with his death, April 14, 1865. 
The War began with the fall of 
Fort Sumter, April 12, 1861, 
and ended with the surrender at 
Appomattox, April 9, 1865. 

1861. 

In the first year of the War 
the most important battle was 
that at Bull Run, July 21, a Se- 
cessionist victory. In that year 
the North was aroused to the surprising and unexpected 
fact that the South meant to maintain slavery, if needs 

be, by setting up 
an independent 
government and 
supporting it by 
force of arms. 
The South was 
equally surprised 
that the North 
intended to re- 
sist disunion even at the sacrifice of property and life- 
Neither side had expected that the other would fight vig- 
orously for its opinions. Each side was equally surprised 



Lowe's War Balloon for Observation. 




Geneseo, a Gunboat. Protected by Network against Torpedoes. 



494 



OUR NATIONS WARS. 



before the year was over, that so great a conflict was actually 
in progress, since each expected to defeat the other with 
ease. The South began the righting. 

The Confederacy in this year lost Delaware, Maryland, 
Kentucky, and Missouri, slaveholding States whose support 
of the slaveholders' cause had been confidently relied upon 
by the Southern leaders. The South lost also West Vir- 
ginia, which seceded from Virginia, and nearly lost eastern 




The Attempted Division of the Union, j"\ 



era; 



Territ, 



Confed 



^] 19 Free States 



HJ 4 Union Slave States 

'"~ H 11 Seceded Slave States 
jgjg "The Confederacy" 




Tennessee. On the other hand, the South had gained the 
prestige of winning the greatest battle of the year. Even 
in this first year of the War, the blockade of the Southern 
seaports by the Union navy had reduced the exportation 
of cotton from $200,000,000 to but 142,000,000 in value. 
Upon the cotton exports the South had relied for its chief 
financial resources to carry on the war. 

At the close of 1861 there were nearly 600,000 soldiers 
upon the Northern side, and 350,000 upon the Southern. 



SUMMARY OF THE WAR OF SECESSION. 



495 



The year was characteristically one devoted to the forma- 
tion and drilling of armies. In all our records the numbers 
of enrolled soldiers upon the Union side include the men in 
the supply and labor departments ; while upon the Southern 
side, since most of these workers were Negroes, they were 
not counted in the armies, — a fact carefully to be remem- 
bered in all battle reports. 




Confederate Possessions / \ 



I 

I KANSAS 

<JLj Close 



■^ Confederate ^ 



War of Secession 

I Union Possessions 

! 1 Confederate Possessions 




1862. 

The year was one of steady fighting from beginning to 
end. It saw the right of the Confederate line broken at 
Mill Springs, January 19, by General Thomas, and the first 
great Union victory, by General Grant, at Fort Donelson, 
February 16. It saw also the astonishing naval battle be- 
tween the Monitor and the Merrimac, at Hampton Roads. 
This was a most reassuring Union victory; and the naval 
battle at New Orleans, April 25, under Farragut, was also 
a brilliant exploit upon the Union side. June 26 saw the 



496 



our nation's wars. 



beginning of the seven days' battles in Virginia covering 
McClellan's retreat. The second battle of Bull Run, 
August 29-30, was, like the first, a Union disaster. Sep- 
tember 17 was fought the awful battle of Antietam, favor- 
able to the North. The horrible carnage at Fredericksburg 
took place December 13. The Union Army of the Potomac 
continued drilling as its chief occupation for the year. 

Though they failed to demolish the forts at Charleston, 
the Union patrol fleet reduced the exportation of cotton to 
but 14,000,000. After this year the South was forced to 
depend entirely upon itself for all its financial, agricultural, 
and industrial supplies. 




Confederate Possessions f"\ 
Close of 1862. 



?errit 



e <*er a7 



1! 

Confederate ^l .. 
War of Secession \^/~ Vv - 



Union Possessions 
[~ ; Confederate Possessions 




Taken as a whole, the year was favorable to the Union 
cause, though final victory was not yet assured. The Con- 
federacy found its area reduced through losing control of 
the Mississippi by the fall of Memphis. At the close of 
1862 there were over 900,000 men bearing arms on the 



SUMMARY OF THE WAR OF SECESSION. 



49T 



Union side, and over 400,000 on the Confederate side. 
This year clearly showed that the fighting was to be offen- 
sive upon the part of the North, and defensive upon the part 
of the South. It was also plain that the Confederacy would 
not surrender until it was completely exhausted. 

1863. 

The year 1862 ended and the year 1863 began with the 
great strategic battle of Murfreesboro in Tennessee, which 
forced the Confederates to retreat. In May the Confeder- 
ates were successful at Chancellorsville ; on July 1, 2, and 
3, Gettysburg was won by the Union Army ; and on the 
4th, Vicksburg was taken. On September 19-20, the Con- 




Confederate Possessions / \ 
Close of 1863 



Territ 



War of Secession 

I J Union Possessions 

Confederate Possessions 




erai 



Confederate <! 



federates won the field at Chickamauga ; but as a result, 
Rosecrans' army entered Chattanooga and held it. On 
November 23-4-5, Bragg was defeated there and retreated 
to Dalton. December 4, the Confederate siege of Knox- 
ville, Tennessee, was raised by the defeat of Longstreet. 



498 



our nation's wars. 



Looking back we now see that the victories at Gettys- 
burg and Vicksburg assured the final victory to the North. 
Yet the battles that followed the fall of Vicksburg saw 
several times as many men killed as fell in all the preced- 
ing years of the War. The great achievement of the year 
was the complete opening of the Mississippi river. The 
battle of Gettysburg is commonly considered the greatest 
military engagement in the New World. It put an end to 
the hope of the Southerners that they might win in the 
War by some brilliant stroke. 



1864. 



Like 1863, the year 1864 witnessed tremendous battles 
rather than only small engagements. The forces on each 




Confederate Possessions ; \ 
Close of I864 



1 Terrih 



War of Secession 

I I Union Possessions 

Confederate.Possessfons 




side had consolidated into great armies. In Virginia oc- 
curred the Battles of the Wilderness, May 5 and 6 ; Spot- 
sylvania Courthouse, May 23-25 ; Cold Harbor, June 3 ; 
Petersburg, July 30; — all fierce and bloody engagements, 



SUMMARY OF THE WAR OF SECESSION. 



499 



with indecisive results. South of the Appalachians Sher- 
man pushed forward his invasion, winning the battle of 
Atlanta July 22, and the city six weeks later, and taking 
Savannah December 21. On October 19 occurred the 
two battles of Winchester and Cedar Creek. December 
15-16 witnessed Thomas's splendid victory for the North 
at Nashville. In this same year there took place two naval 
events of importance. On August 5, Farragut seized 
Mobile Bay and several Confederate vessels. On June 19, 
the steam frigate Kearsarge, off the coast of France, dis- 
abled and sank the Confederate privateer Alabama. 

1865. 

The first four months of the year 1865 saw the struggle 
which had begun in northeastern Virginia, end there. 




P.X\ 



Confederate Possessions j ^ 
April 1st, 1865. /*m«*0 



er a j 



?errit 



.. Confed 
"S— . .« — ' 

War of Secession 

~] Union Possessions 

1 . ■■;![ Confederate Possessions 




-Capture of 
:rson davis 
lay 10th, 1865. 



March 21 the Union forces won a victory at Bentonville, 
and Johnston surrendered to Sherman a month later. 
April 2, Grant, with an army of one hundred thousand, de- 
feated Lee's fifty thousand at Five Forks, and Richmond, the 



500 OUR nation's wars. 



Capital of the Confederacy, surrendered. Grant's terms 
of surrender to Lee at Appomattox, April 9, were as concilia- 
tory as his terms to Buckner at Fort Donelson had been harsh. 

1861 to 1865. 

The American Civil War, or as it is more properly called, 
the War of Secession, was the greatest domestic war in 
the history of the world. It witnessed more than eigh- 
teen hundred military engagements, in none of which were 
less than a thousand men engaged, and in many of which 
more than one hundred thousand were engaged at one time. 
A map of the War that showed by a dot the location of 
each of these engagements would include the following 
States : Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, 
Kentucky, Missouri, and every State south of these. In 
eastern Virginia the map would be black. 

The Causes of Success and Defeat. 

At the beginning of the War certain advantages were 
with the South : The defensive position, knowledge of the 
country, far greater popular skill in the military arts of 
shooting and of tactics, solid popular support of the cause, 
a perfectly reliable body of working Negroes, who needed 
no money and very small supplies, a long preparation of the 
social mind for the enterprise, and a common readiness to 
die for their convictions. 

The Union won for these reasons : Several times as many 
people from whom to get soldiers, far better and greater 
manufacturing and agricultural resources, the prestige of 
being the existing National Government, the sympathy of 
English and French working-people with the free-labor 
wage-service system and their desire to help the North and 



RESULTS OF THE WAR. 



501 



West free the slaves of the South, thus with Queen Vic- 
toria's help preventing their Governments from recognizing 
the Confederacy, the presence North and West of millions of 
immigrants who understood the idea of a Nation but not 
the idea of a State, and a wiser Government at the Capital. 
Results of the War. 

1. Complete overthrow of the political leadership of the 
Southerners in national affairs, never to be re-established 
for sectional reasons. 

2. Disappearance of the relation of political and legal 
inequality between man 
and man, and the tri- 
umph of the "free 
labor " principle that 
all men have equal 
rights before the law. 
Democracy does not 
permit the relation of 
master and slave, which 

is mediaeval feudalism, I — 

not modern republican- A Negr0 Cabin of the Better Kind - 

ism. The Negro in his cabin must be as free before the law 
as the man of English blood. 

3. Final settlement of the question whether States may 
or may not secede, by the decision of arms to the effect 
that they cannot unless they can defeat the National Gov- 
ernment. But unsuccessful rebellion is not treason. 

The War was not a Civil War in the ordinary meaning 
of the term civil. It was not a war between citizens. It 
was not a revolution, for it was not an attempt of the 
people to overthrow one government in order to establish 




502 



another. It was not a War between the States, for New 
York and Georgia were not engaged in fighting each other. 
It was a War of Secession ; that is, an effort by one section 
of a nation to withdraw from the government of the whole. 
Successful rebellion is revolution : successful secession is 
patriotism. The operations of the Union armies were not 
" invasions," but "police" efforts to recover seceded regions. 
They were aggressive in form but defensive in spirit : as 
General Sherman said in his brilliant style to the Southern- 
ers who objected to his march, " If you do not like war, why 
do not you and your relatives stop fighting ? " 

The War of Secession was carried on Avith railroads and 
steamships to move troops and supplies, with telegraph lines 
to convey information rapidly, with field-surgeons and hos- 
pitals to care for the sick and the wounded. In number of 
combats, in range of territory covered by its operations, in 
number of soldiers engaged, in its cost, and in its length of 
duration, taken all together, it was by far the greatest war in 
human history. A war is the supreme test of a civilization: 
testing its strength, vitality, morals, wealth, culture, and 
courage. The outcome of this fearful conflict was for the 
elevation of humanity. A great Nation was maintained and 
solidified, and cleansed of its worst evil, the enslavement 
of men to men. Its cost was more than five thousand dol- 
lars for every slave set free, ten times the average value. 
When men learn to reason, wars will be no more. 

These are not unprofitable inquiries, whether if Albert 
Sidney Johnston had not been killed, but rather Sherman in 
his stead, and not Jackson but Sheridan, the War would 
have ended as soon as it did ; and whether if our President 
had been not the patient, far-seeing, strong-willed, logical 



THE PRESIDENT. 503 



and popular Lincoln, but a weaker man such as the brilliant 
but unsafe Davis, whom indeed the Confederacy chose by 
but one majority, six States voting for Davis and five for 
Toombs, the War would have ended as it did. The greatest 
man of the South was not the President of the Confederacy, 
but General Robert E. Lee, who declined the command of 
the Union Army not because of belief in slavery or even in 
State sovereignty, but because of affection for his kin and 
friends. The greatest man of the North was President 
Abraham Lincoln. To him the South and the Union owe 
the final and right ending of this immortal conflict, which 
makes the most important chapter in the history of mankind. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What were the causes of the War of Secession ? 

2. Compare the operations of the War, East and West. 

3. What was the opinion of Toombs regarding the War ? 

4. Discuss the fall of Fort Sumter and the results. 

5. Discuss the border slave-States. 

6. Give an account of the first battle of Bull Run and results. 

7. Discuss early military operations about Island No. 10. 

8. Discuss Mill Springs and Fort Donelson. 

9. Give an account of the battle of Pittsburg Landing (Shiloh). 

10. Discuss the capture of New Orleans. 

11. Narrate the engagement between the Monitor and the Merrimac. 

12. Discuss McClellan's advance upon Richmond, and the retreat. 
13-14-15-16. Discuss the battles at Antietam Creek, Fredericksburg, 

Chancellorsville, and Stone's River. 

17. Give an account of the Vicksburg campaign. 

18. Give an account of the battle of Gettysburg. 

19. Discuss the Chattanooga campaign. 

20. Give an account of Sherman's march to the sea. 

21. Give an account of the battle of Nashville. 

22. Give an account of the final campaigns in Virginia. 

23. Discuss Confederate privateering. 

24. What were the results of the War ? 

25. Summarize the War by years, 



504 OUR nation's wars. 



SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Hart's Contemporaries, Vol. IV., pp. 228-444 : The facts of War. 

Hart's Source Book, pp. 299-342. 

Schouler's History of the United States, Vol. VI. 

Swinton's Battles of the Civil War. 

Grant's Memoirs. Sherman's Memoirs. 

Bowman and Irwin's Sherman and His Campaigns. 

Burgess's Civil War and the Constitution. 

Brown's The Lower South: Resources of the Confederacy. 

Hay and Nicolay's Abraham Lincoln : A History. 

Century's Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. 

Scribner's Campaigns of the Civil War. 

Dodge's A Bird's Eye View of the Civil War. 

Greeley's The American Conflict. 

Official Records of the War of the Rebellion. 

Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. 

Lossing's Field Book of the Civil War. 

Tenney's Military and Naval History of the Rebellion. 

Comte de Paris's History of the Civil War in America. 

Headley's The Great Rebellion. 

Victor's History of the Southern Rebellion. 

Draper's History of the American Civil War. 

McClellan's McClellan's Own Story. 

Badeau's Military History of U. S. Grant. 

Boynton's History of the Navy during the Rebellion. 

Mahan's The Navy during the Civil War. 

Long's Memoirs of Robert E. Lee. Also Cooke's Life of Lee. 

Gordon's Reminiscences of the Civil War. 

Rhodes's History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850. 

The list of references might be multiplied many times in length, for the 
War of Secession already presents an immense historical and romantic 
literature of its own. 

TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION. 

1. The careers during the War of : — 

Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, McClellan, Meade, Thomas, Hooker, 
Rosecrans, Butler, Halleck, Burnside, Hancock, Slocum, McClernand, 
Schofield, Porter, Farragut, Foote, Lee, A. S. Johnston, J. E. Johnston, 
Beauregard, Kirby Smith, Jackson, Early, Wheeler, Longstreet, Hill, 
Pemberton, Stuart, Hood, Morgan, Prentiss, Forrest, Bragg. 



WAR OF SECESSION. 505 



2. Further Study of the Greatest Battles : Shiloh, Vicksburg, Gettys- 
burg, Nashville. 

3. Study of Other Battles : — Chancellorsville, Chattanooga, etc. 

4. History of the Navy during the War. 

5. The Confederate Rams : The Union Monitors. 

6. Preparation of a Chronology of the War. 

7. Lincoln as a Military and Naval Commander-in-Chief. 

8. Davis as a Military Commander-in-Chief. 

9. History of Individual Regiments. 

10. The Battlefields as National Parks. 

11. The Well-Planned Battles: e.g., Lee at Antietam, McClellan at 
Malvern Hill, etc., etc. 

12. Railroads and Telegraph Service. 

13. Escapes of Prisoners. 

14. Costs of War. 

15. Social Effects of Battles upon Neighborhoods: i.e., Gettysburg, 
1865, and now. 

ESSENTIAL DATES. 

1861-1865. The War of Secession. 
1861. April 12, Sumter is fired upon. 

1861. The Union Army is defeated at Bull Run. 

1862. The Monitor compels the Merrimac to retire 
1862. After Antietam, Lee returns to Virginia. 

1862. The preliminary Emancipation Proclamation is published. 

1863, Jan. 1. Proclamation of Emancipation of slaves in seceded States. 
1863. Vicksburg is taken by the army of Grant. 

1863. At Gettysburg Meade defeats Lee in the greatest battle of the War. 

1863. Grant wins the Chattanooga campaign. 

1864. Sherman's army marches from Atlanta to the Sea. 

1865. Thomas defeats Hood at Nashville. 

1865, April 9. Grant receives Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House. 
1865, April 14. Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. 

Note 1. —Certain battles are dealt with in the text upon a scale of 
length, permitting considerable detail, not because they were more im- 
portant than other battles, but because, being important, they afford oppor- 
tunities to develop typical plans of military strategy and tactics. 

Note 2. — There are innumerable interesting geographical correlations 
to investigate : e.g., Malvern Hill was the home of Nathaniel Bacon, Vir- 
ginia's early patriot. 



506 



THE WAR OF SECESSION. 




Outline Map of the Region of the War of Secession. 

1. Draw on blackboard and on paper an outline map. 

2. Locate the important battles : military and naval. 

3. Mark dotted lines to indicate the campaigns. 

4. Draw the routes of Sherman's March to the Sea and his March 
North through the Carolinas. 

5. Name the States : locate the important cities. 

6. Treat similarly to the above 1-5 the map opposite. 

7. Locate the Capitals of the United States and of the Confederate States. 

Note. — Upon one outline map put only a few details. A series of 
such maps is far better than one map so crowded as to be illegible. 

Suggestion. Collect clippings of battle-maps. See Suggestions to 
Teachers, pp. 20-22. 



THE WAR IN VIRGINIA. 



50' 




Scene of the Virginia Peninsular Campaigns. 



508 



OUR NATION S WAKS. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 



§ 1. The Cause and the Occasion of the "War. 

In the fall of 1897 conditions in Cuba, where Spain had 
long mercilessly oppressed a people of her own blood, 
became critical. The colony was in a state of insurrection, 
as usual. But the insurrection now threatened to succeed 
under the leadership of Maximo Gomez, the rebel general. 
To establish a reign of terror, the Spanish army had con- 
centrated in prison-camps hundreds of thousands of country 




The Maine Entering Havana Harbor, Morro Castle on the Right. 

people, who were starving to death. The story of their 
awful suffering, with pictures from photographs, was spread 
by the newspapers broadcast through our sympathizing land. 
Suddenly, in February, our battleship the Maine, resting 
quietly in Havana harbor, was blown up by a submarine 
mine explosion. This showed conclusively the intolerable 
nature of Spanish rule. Congress resolved to order Spain 
out of Cuba and passed these resolutions, viz., 



RESOLUTIONS OF AVAR. 509 

1. That the people of the island of Cuba are, and of 
right ought to be, free and independent. 

2. That it is the duty of the United States to require 
that Spain give up Cuba and to withdraw all military 
forces from the island. 

3. That the President is directed and empowered to use 
all the forces of the United States, and to call out the 
militia in order to carry out these resolutions. 

4. That the United States disclaims any intention of 
control over said island except for the pacification thereof, 
and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to 
leave the government and control of the island to its people. 

§ 2. Ample Funds were Provided. 

On April 23, 1898, Congress declared that war with 
Spain was a fact. The Secretary of the Treasury was at 
once authorized to borrow 1200,000,000. When the loan 
was advertised, more than seven times that amount was 
subscribed for. 

A war revenue Act was also passed, which revived many 
features of the internal revenue system of the War of 
Secession, among them stamp taxes on legal documents of 
transfer and on bank checks, with one new and very produc- 
tive device, — the taxing of stock sales in all the Exchanges 
of the country. 

§ 3. A Naval "War Began with a Great Victory. 

The Spanish, in the matter of war-ships, were thought to 
be equal with the Americans. In number and size of ships 
the two navies did not greatly differ. 

Upon the declaration of war, Commodore George Dewey, 
in command of the United States Asiatic squadron lying at 



510 



ouk nation's wars. 



Hong Kong, was ordered to proceed to the Philippine 
Islands, and to capture or destroy the Spanish fleet at 
Manila. The Navy Department, with commendable fore- 
sight, had been making preparations for such a move, and 
Dewey was ready for the 600-mile trip to the Philippines 
with his fleet of nine ships. Reaching his destination in 
three days, he entered the Bay at night, running the bat- 
teries at the entrance as Farragut at Mobile Bay had 




Mouth of Pasig River, Manila. 

taught him to do. Steaming slowly up towards the city of 
Manila, he discovered by daybreak the Spanish fleet of ten 
vessels drawn up under the guns of the shore batteries at 
Cavite, a small town a few miles out of the city. There 
were six war-ships in the American fleet, — the flag-ship 
Olympia, a protected cruiser of 6,000 tons, the Baltimore, 
the Boston, and the Raleigh, all second-class protected 
cruisers of about 3,000 tons each. These ships carried 



THE VICTORY AT MANILA. 511 



eight-inch guns and other rapid-fire guns of smaller caliber. 
In addition to these were two gunboats, — the Concord 
and Petrel, of about 1,200 tons each. 

The Spanish fleet consisted of ten ships, — three second- 
class cruisers not unlike the American, three iron cruisers, 
one wooden cruiser, and three gunboats, hi a few hours 
this entire fleet was destroyed and the shore batteries were 
silenced by the superior gunnery of Dewey's ships. Not 
one of the United States fleet was damaged, and not a man 
killed. Eight only were wounded, all on the Baltimore. 
Such a victory in naval warfare was never heard of before. 
Hundreds of the Spaniards were killed, and their vessels 
were all battered, burnt, blown up, or sunk. This demon- 
strated the unfitness of Spain for naval warfare, and her utter 
inability to cope with the United States upon the sea. 
It showed also the pitiable weakness of a once great people. 

§ 4. Spain Sent Out a Fleet to Hold Cuba and Porto Rico. 

The battle of Manila ended three centuries of Spanish 
misrule in the Philippines, made a world-famed hero of 
Dewey, and put the United States in the position of a 
world power just five days after the declaration of war. 
Meanwhile, President McKinley's call for 125,000 volun- 
teers was being answered with remarkable activity, and in 
less than one month a formidable army was collected at 
Tampa, Florida, waiting transportation to Cuba. Mean- 
time, Admiral Cervera and a fleet of four first-class pro- 
tected cruisers and several supporting ships had left the 
Cape Verde Islands. Whether the Admiral contemplated a 
raid on some unprotected portion of our coast, or was head- 
ing for Cuba, was unknown. Much useless apprehension 



512 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



might have been saved had the real truth been known, 
that Cervera considered himself sent on a hopeless mission, 
and was glad to find a temporary refuge in the harbor of 
Santiago from the American fleet under Sampson and Schley. 
To hold him there securely, young Lieutenant Hobson of the 
navy, emulating the exploits of Decatur and Somersin Tripoli, 
and of Cushing when he sank the Confederate Albemarle, 
tried to sink the Merrimac as a barrier in Santiago harbor. 
The obstruction failed, but the heroism endures for all time. 




The battle- 
ship Oregon 
was built in 
San Francisco, 
1893, 10,- 

000 tons dis- 
placement. 
Speed, nearly 

1 7 knots an 
hour Charles 
E. Clark, Cap- 
tain, in 1898. 



§ 5. The Great Exploit of the Oregon. 

Meantime the great battleship Oregon had been steaming 
from the Pacific coast on a 14,500-mile voyage around Cape 
Horn to re-enforce the Atlantic fleet. It was feared that 
Cervera's ships might overcome the Oregon. But in May 
she reported safe in South American waters, and ready to 
go into battle v/ithout an hour's repairs. It was a wonder- 
ful sea-exploit for her sailors and builders alike. 



LAND AND SEA EIGHTS, 513 



§ 6. The Spaniards were Defeated in the Land Campaign. 

The inadequate preparation and the dilatory outfitting of 
the army for service were discreditable to the War De- 
partment. Confusion and inefficiency marked the manage- 
ment of the camps, of the transports, and of the commissary 
departments. After much delay, 15,000 troops were landed 
in Cuba at Daiquiri, sixteen miles south of Santiago, and a 
brief campaign ensued against the city, during which the 
Americans won the battle at Las Guasimas, and afterward 
the brilliant rights at El Caney and at San Juan hill in the 
outskirts of Santiago, July 2, 1898. It was in the latter 
charge that Lieutenant-Colonel Theodore Roosevelt won his 
fame. It was the first campaign in which Spanish and Ameri- 
can soldiers ever met. The Spanish troops who fled to San- 
tiago were heard to say, " Instead of retreating when we 
fired, the Americans came on. The more we fired, the more 
they advanced. They tried to catch us with their hands." 

§ 7. A Second Spanish Fleet -was Utterly Destroyed. 

July 3, 1898, a few days before the close of the Santiago 
campaign, Cervera's fleet made an effort to run the block- 
ade and to escape from Santiago to Havana, but the Ameri- 
can fleet under Sampson kept a keen lookout for the Spanish 
ships. They were sighted before reaching the mouth of 
the harbor. At this hour Admiral W. T. Sampson was a 
few miles away upon an appointment to meet the command- 
ing General, W. R. Shafter. His presence and his ship, the 
New York, were not needed, however. The fine Spanish 
cruisers were chased along shore to the westward by the 
Brooklyn, under Commodore "W. S. Schley, with the Oregon, 
the Iowa, the Indiana, and the Texas, 



514 



OUR NATION'S WARS. 



The Maria Teresa, Christobal Colon, Vizcaya, and Oquen- 
do, the best ships of the Spanish navy, were as quickly 
destroyed by the superior gunnery of the Americans here 
as their fellows were in Manila Bay. Hundreds of the 
Spaniards were killed. Admiral Cervera, with some of his 
officers, was picked up in a boat, and his burned and 



9& 



ffltJ- 




Statue of Columbus at San Juan, Porto Rico. 

battered ships were beached at intervals along the coast. 
The Americans had one man killed and one wounded, both 
on the Brooklyn. 

Two weeks after this naval battle General Toral surren- 
dered the city of Santiago, and the war was practically over. 



CESSIONS OF TERRITORY. 515 



§ 8. Spain Surrendered Her New and Old World Colonies. 

General Miles, with an expedition of four thousand men, 
took possession of Porto Rico in July and August ; and a 
fleet under command of Commodore Watson was getting 
ready to sail for Spain to bombard her coast towns. With 
the best part of her navy swept from the ocean, Spain was 
in no condition for further resistance, and made proposals 
for peace through the French Ambassador, Jules Cambon, 
at Washington. A few months later a treaty of peace was 
signed, in which Spain relinquished all claim to Cuba, and 
ceded Porto Rico and other small islands in the West 
Indies, the island of Guam, one of the Ladrones in the 
Middle Pacific, and the archipelago of the Philippines. 
The United States agreed to pa}^ $20,000,000 as the value 
of Spanish public property in the Philippines, and to deter- 
mine by Act of Congress the civil rights and political 
status of the native inhabitants of the ceded territories. 
The American-Spanish War was one of the shortest on 
record, the period of fighting being less than four months. 
In view of the wide-reaching results, the losses of the 
war may be regarded as insignificant. 

§ 9. The Weakness of Our Army Administration. 

The navy lost one man in battle, the army several hun- 
dred. The navy was well managed ; but the business ad- 
ministration of the army broke down, and bad management, 
bad food, and the lack of proper hospital supplies, killed at 
least several times the number of those who fell in battle. 
The rations sent to the army in Cuba were the same as 
those used in the Klondike ! A friendly foreign critic who 
had been through the Turco-Greek war, after his experience 



516 



OUR NATION S WARS. 



with our army in Cuba remarked that he thought our sol- 
diers fought even better than the Turks, but that on the 
whole our system of military administration was worse than 
that of the Greeks. 

When the War was over, the Secretary of War resigned, 
and the head of the commissary department was subse- 
quently suspended from office in consequence of the expo- 
sures of maladministration. 







Home of Natives in Porto Rico. 

§ 10. Summary of Results of the War. 

All the results of the War are not yet apparent. 

One result was to give the United State's international 
power far beyond that possessed before. This was increased 
by the successes of our arms and diplomacy in the Chinese 
troubles, related elsewhere. 

Another result was to reunite the North and the South, 



WAR OF 1898. 517 



and to heal many of the remaining wonnds of the War of 
Secession ; for the freedom of Cnba had long been a South- 
ern dream rather than a Northern, and the old veterans of 
the " Blue " and the " Gray " and their sons and grandsons 
went to the war together as friends. 

A third result was to give us colonial cares and a large 
population of colored people — the Filipinos — to rule over. 

A fourth was to give us the protectorate of Cuba. 

In a few words, the Spanish-American War made us a 
democratic empire. 

The important results to Spain were, first : the loss of her 
Old World and her New World colonies, won for her by 
the heroism of Columbus and Magellan, and lost by her 
incompetence to rule them in peace ; and, second : her 
forced return to a study of her serious domestic troubles. 

§ 11. The American "World-Empire. 

We had scarcely ''solved the problem of peace with our 
Indian wards, when the new and greater problem of the 
Filipinos came to us as the result of the War of 1898. 
There are now three different respects in which the United 
States is a world-empire. 

First, we own an immense region into which have come 
millions of immigrants, our ancestors and our fellow- 
citizens, from many different races and nations. We are 
a world-people, a new vast composite nation, an empire 
trying the unique experiment of welcoming strangers, not 
fighting them. 

Second, we are a colonial power, a nation ruling depend- 
encies and protecting our neighbors. This is empire in 
the old sense, We have gathered new regions — Florida, 



518 our nation's wars. 



Louisiana, California, Alaska, and all the rest — under the 
Stars and Stripes. 

Third, we are an international power, whose opinion 
must be taken before other nations may act without peril. 
To what greatness we may yet grow in the leadership of 
the world depends partly upon the continuance of our 
progress in civilization and culture, and partly upon the 
time and the land where we first meet the effective opposi- 
tion of another people. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Give an account of the Pacific Ocean struggles. 

2. Discuss the land-campaign in Cuba. 

3. Give an account of the Atlantic Ocean struggles. 

4. Discuss the administration of the American army. 

5. Summarize the results of the War. 



SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Roosevelt's Bough Eiders. 

Lives of Roosevelt and of Dewey. 

The Magazines, Weekly and Daily Papers of the Year 1898. Files may be 

seen in Public Libraries. 
The International Year Book, 1898. 
Halsteacl's History of American Expansion. 
Andrews's The United States in Our Times. 
Brown's History of the United States since the Civil War. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR INQUIRY OR DISCUSSION 

1. President McKinley's Opposition to Declaring "War. 

2. The Cost of Freeing Cuba. 

3. Grant's Ideas as to Cuba. 

4. The Wisdom of Retaining the Philippines. 

5. Porto Rico and the Porto Ricans. 

6. The Education of the Filipinos. 

7. Imports and Exports of the Colonial Trade. 

IMPORTANT DATES. 
1898, May 1. Naval victory at Manila. 
1898, July 3. Naval victory at Santiago. 






PART SIX. 

THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION 



CHAPTER I. 

SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 
§ 1. Cities and People a Century Ago. 

A century ago nine-tenths of the people of the United 
States lived within two hundred miles of the Atlantic coast, 
and the occupation of most of them was agriculture. We 
had few cities at that time, of which only five had a popula- 
tion of over 10,000 each. In 1800 Philadelphia stood at 
the head with about 70,000 inhabitants ; New York second 
with 60,000 ; Baltimore third with 26,000 ; Boston fourth 
with 24,000; and Charleston fifth with 19,000. New 
Orleans was sixth with 8,500, and there were but four 
more towns with over 5,000 people, Albany, Richmond, 
Providence, and Hartford. 

The westward movement of population had extended into 
Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio. But western New York 
was a wilderness, and Syracuse, Rochester, and Buffalo were 
not on the maps. The nation was distinctly agricultural, 
with farmers in the North, and planters in the South. Be- 
sides these agriculturists were the numerous fishermen and 
whalers of New England, and the sailors of all the ports 
of the Atlantic coast. 

The entire population was about 7,000,000, of whom it 
is estimated that scarcely five in a hundred were foreign- 
born. Families were large and family ties were close as in 
the early colonial days. 

519 



520 



THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



2. Cotton Machinery. 

The independent and 
r C% x J> self-supporting life of the 

farm continued to be the 
mainstay of our people 
without much change un- 
til the era of coal, steam, 
and factories was well 
under way, 1840. The in- 
vention of the cotton gin 
by Eli Whitney in 1794 

Whitney's Cotton Gin. WftS tlie 1B0St Important 

Invented upon the Farm of General Nathaniel Greene. eVdlt of illd US trial life ill 

the early days of our nation. The separation of the cotton 




"HP 




t/SSSk 





Spinning Loom. 



MACHINERY FOR TEXTILES. 521 



fiber from the seed, which had been a hand-picking process, 
slow and costly, was now effected by machinery that in- 
creased the efficiency of labor a hundredfold, and made 
cotton in a few years the most profitable crop of the country. 
The invention of the power and Jacquard looms about the 
same time that the cotton gin came into use makes the 
beginning of the nineteenth century the most important 
period in the history of textile manufactures. In 1805 
there were 4,500 cotton spindles at work in the United 
States. In 1900 there were nearly 19,000,000. 

§ 3. The Steamboat. 

The year 1800 is notable as the date when the double- 
acting steam engine of Watt, invented eighteen years be- 
fore in England, became ^^_ 

upon the expiration of his ^ ^^ 

patents free to the world, a 
gift that christened the 
nineteenth century as the 
"age of steam." In 1807 
Robert Fulton, learning the 
lessons of such steamboats 
as Fitch's, made the first 
practical steamboat, the 
Clermont, and established with it permanently the steam 
navigation of the Hudson River. The first trip of the 
Clermont from New York to Albany, 150 miles, was made 
in thirty-two hours, and the return trip in thirty hours. 
For a long time he owned an exclusive monopoly of steam 
navigation. Four years later Fulton built at Pittsburg the 
first steamboat that traversed the Ohio and Mississippi 




Fitch's Steamboat. I7i 



522 



THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



rivers. It was a stern-wheel boat, and made the trip to 

New Orleans in fourteen days. 

In a few years there were hun- 
dreds of steamers plying on the 
Mississippi and its branches, open- 
ing up the great West to settle- 
ment and civilization. 

On our Western rivers both 
stern- and side-wheel boats were 
used. In the East side-wheelers 
were the rule, and in a few decades 
the magnificent floating palaces of 
the Hudson River and Long Island 
Sound were evolved, making a 
type of boat that holds its own 

to-day, with little modification in fifty years. 




Eli Whitney. 
Inventor. Born, I 765 ; died, 1825. 



§ 4. Ocean Steamers. 
The screw-propeller, which is now universally adopted 
for sea-going steamers, was first used in this country by 
Colonel Stevens of New Jersey experimentally in 1804. 
In 1836 the idea was further developed by John Ericsson, 
then living in England ; and the steamer Robert F. Stockton, 
built in accordance with his plans, was sent to the United 
States. It was thirty years, however, before screw propul- 
sion of ships was fully established in its superiority for 
ocean voyages. The last of the side-wheel Cunarders, the 
Russia, was long a popular ship among the rival sisters of 
the stern-propeller. One advantage remained with the 
paddle-wheel ship, — it did not roll as much in a heavy sea 
as the propeller steamboat. 



STEAMSHIPS. 



523 



The first steamer to cross the ocean was the Savannah, in 
1819; time, twenty-six days. In 1852 the United States 
steamer Arctic was regarded as the greyhound of the Atlan- 




1. Great Eastern 1858, Length, 692 ft.; displacement, 27,000 tons. 

2. Oceanic 1899. Length, 704 ft.; displacement, 32,500 tons. 

tic, her record time being nine days, seventeen hours, and 
twelve minutes. Transatlantic speed records have been 
reduced since then to about five and one-third days by sev- 
eral steamers that cross the Atlantic. Plans are now being 
evolved to bring the record under five days. 
§ 5. Steam Railroads. 
About twenty years after the introduction of steam navi- 
gation in this country the development of steam railroads 
began. The father of the locomotive was Richard Frevi- 
thick of Cornwall, England, who, after building two steam 
road-carriages, constructed a locomotive that ran upon rails 



24 



THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



in the year 1804. The man who first made a rapid and 
rjractical locomotive was George Stephenson, whose engine, 
" Locomotive," was put into regular service on the Stockton 
& Darlington Railroad in England. 

In May, 1829, the first locomotive to run on an Ameri- 
can railroad was imported from England. It was called 
the Stonebridge Lion, and was placed on a section of the 
Delaware Canal Company's railroad. The first American 




Early Passenger Train. 

locomotive was built by Peter Cooper at Baltimore, and ran 
on a piece of what is now the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 
about thirteen miles. The distance was accomplished in 
less than an hour, and a fine horse raced the locomotive 
back to the city. The puffing little machine beat the 
horse. In 1830 there were twenty- three miles of railroad 
in the United States. In 1840 there were 2,818 miles of 
track. In 1902 the railroad mileage exceeded 250,000. 
The mileage of all Europe is but 180,000. 

The nation to-day is bound together by railroads as with 



RAILROADS AND CANALS. 



525 



steel bands. San Francisco is practically nearer Boston 
to-day than New York was one hundred years ago, when 




Greatest Locomotive Steam Engine in the World. Weight without tender, I 16 tons; 
with tender loaded, 160 tons. 

the old fashioned stage-coach took a week to cover the 
distance. Compared with the effort and discomfort attend- 
ing the old stage-coach trip, a journey across the Continent 
to-day is a luxurious diversion. 

§ 6. Canals. 

As a means of transportation, canals antedate railroads 
in this country about ten years. In 1822 Lake Champlain 
and the Hudson River were connected by a canal from 
Whitehall to West Troy. In the same year Chesapeake 
Bay and Albemarle Sound, North Carolina, were joined by 
a canal running through the great Dismal Swamp. The 
Erie Canal from Albany to Buffalo, completed in 1826, was 
by far the most important work of the kind ever under- 
taken in this country, and has grown in importance with 
the growth of the country and especially of the great West. 
Its usefulness lies in the fact that it gives cheap transpor- 
tation cf grain and of other products of the West to tide- 
water at New York. The great natural partner of this 



526 



THE PROGRESS OE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 




canal is the Hudson river, which at the Highlands cuts 

through the Alleghany range of mountains. 

The Wei land 
Canal, avoiding 
the Niagara and 
connecting Lake 
Erie and Lake 
Ontario through 
a short canal not 

Prairie Schooner. ^^ t w e n t y. 

seven miles in length, is of interest for- the reason that 
practically it makes seaports of all the cities on the chain 
of great lakes extending westward from Ontario. The 
depth of the canal is fourteen feet, and vessels of less 
than that draft can carry cargoes from Chicago to Liverpool 
without breaking bulk, with the additional aid of the short 
canal around the Lachine Rapids of the St. Lawrence River. 
There are several canals of importance connecting the coal 
regions of Pennsylvania with Philadelphia and New York, 
two that join the Ohio River and Lake Erie, one the 
Mississippi and Lake Michigan, and several constructed to 
facilitate lake and river navigation. But the multiplication 
of railways and the lowering of freight charges have in the 
last thirty years diminished the relative importance of 
canals, although their value will always be great, if in no 
other way than as a check upon high charges of the 
railroads. 

§ 7. Coal and Iron. 
Contemporary with the growth of railroads and facilities 
for transportation has been the development of the coal and 
iron industries of the country. The one mineral that binds 



STEEL. 



527 



the world together to-day is iron and its product steel. It 
is the foundation of all industries, as it is the essential 
feature of all implements, tools, and machinery. 

Our railroads run on steel, our bridges are made of steel, 
our large buildings are framed in steel, and our steamships 
are built of steel. Iron and steel enter into the construc- 
tion of every house and factory in many ways, and are the 










The Brooklyn Bridge across the East River in New York City. 

strengthening elements in almost everything now made of 
wood. Fortunately for this country, iron is abundant in 
many of its regions. Western Pennsylvania, northern Ala- 
bama, the Lake Superior region, Illinois and Colorado, have 
vast sources of supply, and the abundance of bituminous 
coal available for smelting purposes makes the United 
States to-day the greatest iron and steel producing nation 



528 THE PE0GEE8S OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



Steel-frame buildings, half 
high as the Oceanic or Celtic 
is long, are put together 
in but a few months. 




-C : ~i 



- •_::::. -:--^~-^ x-;— r 



Modern Fire-proof Building with Steel Frame. 



MANUFACTURING. 529 



of the world. Great Britain, which ten years ago led in 
iron and steel production, made in 1900 about 14,000,000 
tons, and the United States 24,500,000. Better than any 
other standard that measures the material greatness of a 
country is its production of iron and steel. This is well 
recognized abroad, and to-day the nations of Europe are 
treating this country with a politeness to which we were 
utter strangers a few years ago. It is indeed true that 
" Nothing succeeds like success." 

After the close of the War with Great Britain in 1812-14, 
the manufacturing period of this country may be said to 
have begun. During the eight years of President Monroe's 
Administrations, with a protective tariff in force, a great 
variety of manufacturing enterprises were started. 
§ 8. Our Manufactures. 

Natural water-powers were utilized in the early days, and 
the steam engine supplemented the waterfall. Factory 
towns became common, especially in New England, where 
cotton was the great staple of manufacture, whose conver- 
sion into cloth, for sale in all the great markets of the 
world, saved that part of the country from staying poor. 

Iron, wood, wool, leather, and many other materials began 
to be worked up into a thousand articles of utility, and to- 
day there is a larger variety of manufactures in the United 
States, and a greater total valuation of yearly product, than 
in any other country. The product for 1900 Avas not less 
than 112,000,000,000 in value. The average adult opera- 
tive receives annually $550 in wages, and by means of 
machinery produces over $2,000 worth of goods. 

Though we have added numerous forms of industry to 
the original agriculture of the country, the tilling of the soil 



530 THE PEOGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



still maintains its prominence as a great source of our 
wealth and prosperity. Besides raising the cereals and 
meat that feed our own people, we are supplying most of 




Kansas City, 1903. Missouri River flood at Railroad Station. 
In part, this is the water that, falling in the arid West, may there be saved tor irrigation. 

the food for the people of Great Britain, and a large pro- 
portion of the food of many other nations that in return 
send us their manufactures and other products. With the 
development of irrigation in the arid West we shall have 
still more surplus agricultural produce. 



AGRICULTURE. . 531 



§ 9. Our Agricultural Products. 

American inventiveness has produced labor-saving ma- 
chinery which enables one man to do the work of many. 
Mowers, reapers, harvesters, and steam-threshing machines 
now handle the great crops of the West. The steam plow, 
with a dozen shares attached, turns up the soil for the 
seeding machines over vast tracts of land. Over one hun- 
dred million bushels of wheat are now annually exported 
from this country ; and the average export of corn — 
America's great gift of food to the world — has averaged 
recently almost two hundred million bushels a year. 

Our cotton crop, however, is the most valuable export 
that we produce. The mills of the world would have to 
close without it. Our annual crop of about 11,000,000 
bales is seven-eighths of the whole world's production of 
cotton ; and two-thirds of it we send abroad, which brings 
about $250,000,000 in trade annually back to this country. 

It was supposed fifty years ago that the agricultural 
regions of the United States did not extend beyond the 
Mississippi River basin; but the storage of water in the 
comparatively rainless regions of the far West, then called 
"The Great American Desert," and its distribution in systems 
of irrigation, — reservoirs, canals, and ditches, — has made 
vast tracts of what was apparently worthless land bloom with 
rich growths of fruit, grain, and vegetables. Great plans 
for irrigation by the assistance of the National Government 
have recently been adopted, 1908. An investment of $200,- 
000,000 in reservoirs that impound the melted snows of 
winter and the rains of spring and in great canals, will more 
than repay itself in a single decade of years. 

The value of the leading crops of the United States in 



532 



THE PROGRESS OE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



1900 was in millions of dollars: corn, 751; cotton, 375; 
wheat, 323 ; ha) 7 ", 250 ; oats, 208 ; and of dairy products, — 
butter, cheese, and milk, — 450. 

§ 10. The Precious Metals. 

For the first half of the nineteenth century the mining 
industries of the country did not include the production of 
gold or silver in any considerable amounts. The mountain 
regions of North Carolina and Georgia yielded a little 




gold, but probably not more than $ 5,000,000 in fifty years. 
The discovery of gold in California, Colorado, and other 
Territories of the United States, which began in 1849 and 
has continued ever since, until every State and Territory in 
the Rocky Mountain region and on the Pacific Slope, includ- 
ing Alaska, is a gold producer, in the last fifty years of the 
nineteenth century resulted in putting into the various 
operations of business and finance over $2,000,000,000- 
This enormous sum has fathered trade enterprises to the 



GOLD AXD SILVER. 533 



value probably of many times that amount, for " gold is a 
great breeder of business," and through the manipulations 
of credits and loans a million dollars of gold in a bank is a 
fair basis for ten times that amount in discounts. In this 
same fifty } T ears, in addition to two billions of gold, silver 
valued at over eight billions of dollars was mined. The 
value of the copper produced was yet larger. 

The coal and iron mining industries of the country repre- 
sent a far greater annual value than that of the gold prod- 
uct ; but coal and iron are consumed, while gold that goes 
into circulation, or serves as a basis for it, persists in its 
beneficent function as a facilitator of exchanges or trade. 
To a lesser extent what is true of gold is true of silver. 
The profit in the great business of banking is in the fact 
that one piece of gold or one sum of money may settle ten 
or a hundred debts of the same amount in a year, and the 
banker takes his little toll on each transaction. 

One hundred years ago there was little gold or silver in 
the United States, and trade was (especially in the country 
districts) an exchange or barter of the commodities of life. 
Taxes were often paid in beef or other standard commodi- 
ties. The early Virginians paid their debts and bought their 
goods with tobacco. Furs and skins served a similar pur- 
pose in other parts of the country. In trade, the Indian's 
wampum, made of seashells, was long the current coin. But 
the thrifty settlers near the seashore started wampum 
factories and inflated the currency, and prices rose to a 
height in wampum that finally drove that currency out 
of use. Our national finances and our general business 
are now upon the gold basis, as is the commerce of 
Europe. 



534 THE PKOGHESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 11. Banking. 

Iii 1782 Robert Morris of Philadelphia, Superintendent 
of Finance for the Continental Congress, the friend of Wash- 
ington, and the patriot whose timely aid more than once 
saved the Army of the Revolution from distress, conceived 
the idea that a bank conducted on sound principles would 
be of great service to both Government and people. The 
lucky arrival of $470,000 in specie as a loan from France 
enabled the Bank of North America to make a good start. 
It attracted large deposits, and was enabled to make generous 
advances to the Government for the purchase of army sup- 
plies. The Bank is now in the one hundred and twentieth 
year of its honored existence, and has failed to pay its semi- 
annual dividend only five times. The Bank of New York 
was started a few years later, and the Bank of Manhattan 
County soon followed. 

The first Bank of the United States was established in 
1791 by Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury. This 
Bank lasted until 1811, when political opposition killed it. 
After an experience of five years, during which specie pay- 
ments were generally suspended by the banks of the States, 
and especially by those organized for the purpose of taking- 
over the business of the United States Bank, a new Bank 
was chartered by Congress under the same title as the old. 
This lasted to the limit of its charter, — twenty years, — 
when, owing to the opposition of President Jackson, Con- 
gress refused to renew the charter. 

From that time to the year 1861 chaotic conditions 
prevailed in the banks of the country. Immediately after 
the dissolution of the United States Bank, the State of 
Michigan passed a very free banking law, — so free that 



MONEY AND BANKING. 535 



many of the banks were located in the depths of forests, 
where men were few and wildcats many. Thus the State 
banks came to be known as " wildcat " banks, a name that 
clung for many years to banks anywhere that were irrespon- 
sible. While well-managed banks have always existed in 
the United States, badly managed banks were very much in 
evidence in this country up to the year 1861. The passage 
of the National Banking Act almost abolished State banks by 
a ten per cent tax on the circulation of their notes, and en- 
couraged the establishment of National Banks by allowing 
them to purchase Government bonds and to issue notes 
based on the bonds. This national currency — good every- 
where — is a boon that few of the present generation appre- 
ciate. Before its advent there was a bewildering variety in 
paper currency. Money that would pass in one State might 
be refused across the border-line of the next. 

In Illinois, a year or two before the War of Secession, a 
bank-note that was worth ninety cents on the dollar was re- 
garded as " gilt>edged." Nearly all the State Banks had sus- 
pended, and their bills were worth from fifty to eighty cents. 
Illinois had been trying the " wildcat " system, — not quite so 
recklessly as Michigan, but in a way that indicated a great 
lack of financial wisdom. A dozen epidemics of " wildcatisnT 
in banking may be traced in the financial history of the United 
States ; and, as though that were not trouble enough, in the 
early days the counterfeiters were always active, and made 
life a burden to receivers of money. Every office was provi- 
ded with a " Bank-note Reporter," in which hundreds of new 
counterfeit certificates were reported every month. This con- 
stant issue of new notes, with a hundred different rates of dis- 
count on bills that were genuine, made confusion everywhere. 



536 THE PROGRESS OF A3IERICAX CIYILIZATIOX. 



§ 12. Electricity. 
It was the great Benjamin Franklin who made the first 
important American discovery about electricity, — that 
lightning is one manifestation of it. "While all Western 
Europe also was then and ever since has been studying and 
utilizing electric force, it is the peculiar glory of America 
that the greatest electrical inventions have been the work 
of her men of scientific and mechanical genius. 



/7n«^ 



In 1844 Professor Samuel F. B. Morse, after a dozen years of effort, brought 

to a successful issue his experiments in electric telegraphy under the 

patronage of the National Government. He was a graduate of 

Yale College, and an artist, a scholar, and a genius. 

The last twenty-five years of the nineteenth century may 
fairly be termed the great developmental era of electricity 
as an industrial force. 

The electric telegraph came into being forty years before 
this period, and the first forms of many modern electric 
appliances date back of 1875. The growth of electricity as 



ELECTRICITY. 



537 



a factor in modem civilization since that date has been so 
extensive and rapid as to give a distinct character to the 
present age. 
Electricity n o w 
furnishes 1 i g h t, 
heat, and power, 
in addition to its 
first great work 
o f transmitting 
the words and 
thoughts of men 
instantly any- 
where by wire. 
After the great 
invention of the 
telephone in 1876 
by Professor Bell, 
which in a very 
brief time came 
into use in all parts 
of the country, the 
dynamo which 
converts steam- or 
water-power into an electric current, and that current into 
power again for economical use, is the great feature of 
the industrial development in electricity. 

A most striking feature in this development is that of 
electric railways. The now familiar trolley, unknown in 
1880, is, for distances under twenty miles, an effective 
rival of the steam railroad, and is beginning to be success- 
fully used for much longer distances. It has almost 




Thomas Alva Edison. Born, 1847. 
The Greatest Inventor in the History of Mankind. 
Electric lamp; phonograph; telephone transmitter; 
telegraph improvements ; electric storage battery. 



538 



THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION, 



entirely superseded the old-fashioned horse-car, and the 
limits of its future usefulness are not yet visible. We 
stand to-day on the borderland of electric development. 
When the problem of turning the potential energy of coal 
directly into electricity is solved, or when the way is 
discovered to tap the electric currents of the earth and 
to transmute them into work without the intervening de- 
composition 
of metals or 
the driving of 
dynamos, we 
shall see such 
a growth of 
mechanical 
power as 
will greatly 
change the 
social condi- 
tions of man- 
kind. Recent 
Dvnam0 advances in 

electrical engineering indicate that the time of cheap pro- 
duction of electricity is not far off. It is now possible 
to carry an electric current many miles with but slight 
loss. 

Theoretically, power that does not cost anything' would 
make food very cheap and greatly lighten the task of labor. 
If in the future the chemists succeed in their efforts to make 
food artificially, we may have practically free food and free 
power. This achievement, like aerial navigation, is with- 
in the range of possibility. 




MAN AND MACHINES. 



539 



§ 13. Machinery and Man. 

It has often been questioned whether, on the whole, 
machinery tends to better the average condition of man- 
kind, which is that of a laboring man of one sort or 
another. By their unhealthful conditions, many kinds of 
manufacturing business directly shorten the lives of their 
operatives. The life of a man working in a factory eight 
or ten hours a day is dwarfed, even if the work involves 
no directly injurious conditions, and the individual is 
reduced to some- 
what the condi- 
tion of a mere 
machine, good 
only while h i s 
fiber holds out. 
Shop-girls and 
clerks are often 
worn out by the 
unhealthy condi- 
tions of their 
employment, and 
thousands of business and professional men die every year 
from overwork. Indoor work with its confinement, often 
in badly ventilated and noisy rooms, is unnatural and dan- 
gerous to the physical well-being. 

The truth of the matter seems to be, that while the ex- 
tremes of poverty and riches are unfortunately accentuated 
at the present clay, the average living conditions are much 
better than those of a hundred years ago. The spread of 
intelligence and education has raised the standard of life 
and stimulated the ambitions of mankind. 



• ■ 


^te^ssgggg^^ 




•1 


\" : 


vn;tlf 


SaMst-ia 


- - ~ 








•' 



Electric Trolley Railway Car 



540 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 14. Labor Organizations. 

One of the most striking features of modern life is the 
organization of laborers for their protection and improve- 
ment. Laboring men, by education, have come to know 
that if they would share fairly in the enormous production 
of wealth now going on, they must unite for all legitimate 
purposes, among which are the increase of wages and the 
decrease in hours of labor. 

Many great labor organizations of the country have grown 
up during the last forty years. The Knights of Labor, the 
Federation of Labor, amalgamated associations, and trade 
unions, great and small, when wisely led, accomplish much 
that is good. The eight-hour law, now recognized by a 
majority of the States in public work, is the greatest 
'achievement of the laboring people. Their unions brought 
this to pass. Another achievement of the united working- 
classes has been the prohibition of child-labor. Trade 
unions have also been influential in raising wages. Labor 
organizations have sometimes attempted to tax business 
more than it will bear, and have, in certain instances, made 
conspicuous failures in so doing. Many employers have 
shut up factories rather than yield to what they considered 
unjust demands on the part of striking employes. 

§ 15. Corporations. 

While trade unions, on the one hand, have organized the 
laborers, the owners of capital on the other have unified the 
management of many industries in this country into what 
are known as " trusts." The largest of these are the United 
States Steel Corporation with a capitalization of over 
11,000,000,000, and the Standard Oil Company with a 



GREAT CORPORATIONS. 541 



capital nearly equal in value. After these come the Western 
Union Telegraph, the Consolidated Tobacco Company, the 
American Telephone Company, the Amalgamated Copper 
Company, the American Smelting and Refining Company, 
the American Sugar Refining Company, the Pullman Com- 
pany, and the United States Leather Company, all with 
capitalizations ranging from one hundred millions to two 
hundred millions ; these vast organizations are followed 
by about seventy more, with capitalizations of ten to a hun- 
dred millions each ; and these by hundreds more, with capi- 
talizations of one to ten millions each. 

Besides these industrial " trusts " there are the immense 
railroad corporations. The Pennsylvania railroad system is 
valued at a billion dollars. The stocks and bonds of the Rock 
Island now amount to half a billion dollars. Others also ex- 
ceed a hundred millions. These are enormous figures, and 
yet the amount of the savings bank deposits in this country 
would buy up the ten leading trusts and railroads and have 
a considerable surplus left. The wages of labor in the 
United States for one year would buy up all the great trusts 
and railroads with some hundreds of millions to spare. 
§ 16. Labor and Capital. 

With organization on both sides, capital and labor are 
not unequally matched. With the more intelligent leaders 
of labor, strikes are not now favored except as a last resort, 
when arbitration of disputes is refused. The spread of edu- 
cation and the growth of intelligence in this country lead 
to the hope and expectation that labor troubles will decrease. 
American business affairs and social relations are now so 
complicated as to make industrial peace essential to our 
general welfare. 



542 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 17. Our International Leadership. 

The geographical position of the United States, our enor- 
mous natural resources, and the intelligent and forceful 
character of our people, have placed us at the beginning of 
the twentieth century at the head of all nations in material 
wealth and power ; and our schools, colleges, and universities 
have given our people that wisdom which is competent to 
direct private and public affairs, and to lead in the develop- 
ment of national institutions. Apprehension is now felt 
in Europe that the lion's share of the world's trade will 
fall into the hands of this country. Individuals, delegates, 
and committees from foreign shores are constantly visiting 
America to study the methods that have led to such 
marked success ; and Americans are overrunning the world 
with capital and enterprise, developing electric railways in 
London, opening mines in Siberia, building bridges in 
Egypt and India, buying steamship lines to England, start- 
ing banks in the Orient, selling oil upon all the continents : 
— in short, extending American business around the globe. 

All this wealth and power and honor are gratifying to our 
national pride. It may be that before this century is over, 
the United States will occupy somewhat the position of the 
Roman Empire among the nations of old. It is well in our 
race for wealth to bear in mind the truths that although 
men can make money, money cannot make men ; that riches 
and luxury are apt to breed unkindness, and with unkind- 
ness we are unkinned and disunited. The only guarantees 
we can have against social revolution, against disintegration 
into classes and factions, and against national decay, are the 
wisdom to understand the causes that lead to the fall of 
empire, and the righteousness that rights all wrongs. 



THE NATIONAL WEALTH. 543 



The causes of national decay are the same as those which 
break up families. They are all forms of unkindness, the 
denial of the natural affections and of the claims of kinship. 
§ 18. Our National Wealth. 

We can picture the absolute facts of the national wealth 
only by the greatest efforts of the imagination. From the 
fact that a fair town house of six or eight rooms, almost 
anywhere in our country, is worth $2,000 to $3,000, it is 
comparatively easy to understand that the houses of a city 
of ten thousand people are worth $4,000,000 to $6,000,000. 
Large as the total is, we can yet picture a collection of two 
thousand houses. When a fair-sized farm of one hundred 
acres, with buildings, is worth $4,000 to $5,000, it is pos- 
sible to conceive of a State with ten thousand of such 
farms, worth in all $40,000,000 to $50,000,000. The yet 
vaster sums of the National wealth to be understood must 
be compared with smaller sums 

Population of the Contiguous Continental U. S. ... 80,000,000 

Total Wealth (estimate, 1903) of All the People . . . §90,000,000,000 

Value of All the Farms and Mines 20,000,000,000 

Value of All the Other Eeal Estate 25,000,000,000 

U. S. Money in Circulation 2,700,000,000 

U. S. National Debt 1,100,000,000 

All Other Government Debts (State, County, Local) . . 2,500,000,000 

Savings Banks Deposits 2,750,000,000 

National Bank Resources 1,750,000,000 

Insurance Company Assets . 2,000,000,000 

Railroads, Steam and Electric 6,000,000,000 

In addition to all this wealth, there is the value of public 
highroads and of commons, no longer considered in sta- 
tistics. There are a score of American families each of 
which possesses property valued at amounts varying from 
$50,000,000 to $300,000,000. 



544 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 

§ 19. Our Incomes and Expenditures. 
The wealth of the richest nation on the globe, and the 
fourth in population, being exceeded only by China, India, 
and Russia, appears quite as striking when seen in the 
sums that represent the incomes and the expenditures. 

Annual Business Done by All the People $95,000,000,000 

Annual Farm Production, Vegetable and Animal . . . 6,000,000,000 

Annual Manufacturing Production 13,000,000,000 

Annual Gold and Silver Production 110,000,000 

Annual Iron and Copper Production (ores) 500,000,000 

Annual Coal Production (value at mines) 400,000,000 

Annual Petroleum Production (value at wells) .... 75,000,000 

Annual Railroad Revenue, Steam and Electric . . . 2,500,000,000 

Annual Wages paid (all occupations) 8,000,000,000 

Annual Imports 1,000,000,000 

Annual Exports 1,400,000,000 

U. S. Government Annual Income 700,000,000 

U. S. Government Annual Expenditures 600,000,000 

U. S. Government Post Office (mails) Revenue .... 115,000,000 

U. S. Government Pensions (Wars) 140,000,000 

Annual Expenditures by State, County, City, Town, and 

Other Local Governments 2,500,000,000 

§ 20. Some Instructive Comparisons. 

The farmers and importers receive for leaf tobacco an- 
nually about $ 100,000,000, while the product is marketed 
to consumers for #700,000,000, the difference representing 
costs of manufacture and of sales, including internal rev- 
enue taxes. Similarly, the various distilled and malt liq- 
uors cost the consumers annually $1,250,000,000, of which 
the farmers receive perhaps a tenth for their corn, barley, 
rye, and hops. It is instructive to compare with these vast 
sums, other national expenditures. For public education 
we pay $225,000,000 annually, and for private education 
$50,000,000. We spend for all our churches, home missions 



THE LABOR. AND CAPITAL SYSTEM. 545 



and foreign missions, onr hospitals and asylums, for all 
philanthropies and charities, less than the billion dollar 
yearly national bill for patent medicines. 

§ 21. The Free-labor System. 

In recent years the average annual income of adult 
workingmen in manufacturing industries has been $450. 
It is somewhat more in the trades that require skilled 
laborers, and considerably less in the great factories of 
cotton, woolen, and silk textiles. This seems a compara- 
tively small sum in view of the vast income of the nation 
as a whole, and especially in view of the private incomes of 
certain individuals. There has arisen in recent years much 
criticism of the free-labor, work-f or- wages, private-owner- 
ship-of-land-and-capital system of modern economic democ- 
racy. The subject is indeed very difficult to understand, 
— difficult for grown people as well as for boys and girls. 

It is important to remember that in early colonial times 
a considerable part of the population were brought to 
America to work for their masters for food and clothes and 
shelter, without the privileges to change masters and em- 
ployment, to hold land, and to manage their own family 
concerns. The development of civilization in America has 
freed all bond-servants, white and black. It has given all 
of us freedom of worship, freedom of employment, privi- 
leges to hold land, to vote, and to take office, and to edu- 
cate our children at the common cost, freedom to go where 
we will, and freedom to employ others. Life still grinds 
hard upon the poor. But even the poor of to-day with 
health may hope to become fairly well-to-do. The free-labor 
system is unquestionably the best system to produce and 
to distribute wealth yet known among men. 



546 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 22. The Disappearance of Poverty. 

In human history there have been six great causes of 
poverty: sickness, ignorance, isolation, fraud, force, and 
servitude to tyranny. 

The first of these causes existed in the oppressed, the 
next two in the oppressors, and the last was a relation be- 
tween slave and master. The marvelous advances of science 
are doing away with sickness. Ignorance is steadily de- 
creasing : against it work the public schools, the news- 
papers, and the influence of the political franchise, which 
encourages men to think. Isolation is almost unknown : 
the mails reach the remotest hamlet. Fraud grows increas- 
ingly more difficult ; the increasing general intelligence and 
social solidarity, together with the right to vote, that bul- 
wark of personal freedom, tend constantly to give the 
laborers more and more of " the fruits of their own hands." 
No man to-day can be made poor by force, for pillaging 
and other crimes of violence by which property is taken 
away are impossible. Servitude, which prevented the de- 
velopment of the mind and of the will, has been legally 
destroyed. If the wage-system is, as some contend, a 
wage-slavery, it is so, not by law, but only by reason of 
the laborers' being too ignorant to seize the legal opportu- 
nities of absolute personal freedom. 

It is true that it is too expensive for the individual poor 
man to go to law for the enforcement of his rights against 
a rich man or corporation disposed to wrong him. But this 
has always been true. Our gains have been in the increas- 
ing opportunity of the poor to combine, and in the increas- 
ing disposition of all courts to do justice between the rich 
and the poor; — to be "no respecter of persons." 



CORPORATION OWNERSHIP. 547 

§ 23. The Ownership of Corporations. 

The very corporations themselves, by their shares, which 
may be bought one at a time by the poor with their savings, 
tend to do away with poverty. Perhaps the finest quality 
in Americanism is the desire on the part of all Americans 
to create a social state in which there shall be as few poor 
people as possible, but all shall have at least a competence. 
Poverty, which, carefully defined, is the absence of sufficient 
property and income to supply one's self and one's natural 
dependants with an adequate amount of the things neces- 
sary for the physical, mental, and moral life, is older than 
human history. Once universal, it is now not even the 
typical condition of American families. 

Of the three methods proposed for doing away with pov- 
erty, one is socialism. By this all property is to be public. 
Xo one is to have any property at all except such as may be 
apportioned to him by government. Each one is to do the 
work and to live the life that the rulers of the government, 
themselves elected by the economic democracy, may assign. 
By this scheme, there will be no poor who are free, for the 
lazy will be driven to work or be imprisoned. 

Another method is anarchy. Thv-re is to be no govern- 
ment at all. There will be no government-guarantee of 
title to property, and each will have only what he is physi- 
cally able to possess and to exclude others from. This scheme 
would temporarily do away with poverty, because it involves 
the distribution of all wealth. The final outcome of anarchy 
is, in its terribleness, beyond the dream of the imagination. 
An absolute despotism would be far, far better. 

The third method is that in actual operation, — the grad- 
ual purchase of established lines of business, that is of 



548 



THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



corporations, by their managers and workers and by the gen- 
eral public, which consumes their products. This purchase 
provides the developers of business with funds with which 
to establish new agricultural, industrial, and commercial 
enterprises. This method means progress, the diffusion of 
wealth and of economic power, and the creation in America 
of a social and economic as well as a political democracy. 





A 



qEffsaa? ^ *" " gffSS 






,jr 



A Modern Printing Press. 




It puts a premium upon genius with its inventiveness and 
industriousness, and upon thrift and good judgment. 

A well-distributed ownership of business concerns, to- 
gether with a general ownership of their homes by families, 
is as much to be desired as it is steadily coming to pass. 
As a force working against poverty, it is only less important 
than the modern ambition of parents in America to give 
their children the best and longest education possible. 



THE DAILY NEWSPAPER. 



549 



§ 24. The Dissemination of Knowledge. 

There are in the United States now 2,300 daily and 
15,000 weekly newspapers, with enough more issued at semi- 
weekly to quarterly intervals to make a total of over 21,- 
000. The ma- 
chine known as 
the printing-press 
has founded not 
merely an indus- 
try in newspa- 
pers, but a valu- 
able form of edu- 
cation. Without 
book-learning be- 
yond the rudi- 
ments taught in 
a district school, 
any one with an 
appetite for 
knowledge may 
in a few years be- 
c o m e well in- 
formed by the 
careful perusal of 
a good daily or weekly newspaper. " Knowledge is power," 
and we may fairly attribute much of the power of Ameri- 
cans to knowledge disseminated through the newspapers 
of the country. They have educated our citizens in the 
facts of contemporary life in all parts of the world, and 
have been efficient co-laborers with the teaching, that 
God has " made of one blood all nations of the earth." 




Type-setting by Machinery. 



550 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 25. Our Increased Power to Produce "Wealth. 

To this wealth and knowledge we have come in three hun- 
dred years since John Smith led the Jamestown colonists 
to success. The average length of human life was increased 
by a dozen years. These have been added to the productive 
period. The average age at death is now nearly forty-four 
years. About twenty-three people die annually now in 
every thousand of our population. The removal of the 
feeble-minded and of the insane from the homes to great 
institutions set free their care-takers. The improvement in 
morality and in health also added to the wealth-producing 
power of the American people. The actual labor-power of 
our people in wealth-production now is equal to that of a 
hundred million of able-bodied men, working without ma- 
chinery. For science and invention have multiplied by ten 
times, yes, a score of times, the productive power of the 
workingman. Education, by increasing the individual 
efficiency, still further multiplies it. And the limit of our 
wealth-producing power is not yet reached. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. What cities were there in 1800 ? 

2. Discuss the development of cotton-manufacture. 

3. Give an account of the steamboat and of the steamship. 

4. Discuss steam railroads. 

5. Give an account of our canals. 

6. Discuss the coal, iron, and steel industries. 

7. Discuss our manufactures. 

8. Give an account of agricultural conditions and products. 

9. Discuss the precious metals. 

10. Give a summary of the history of banking. 

11. Discuss electricity in its industrial applications. 

12. Is machinery a help or a hindrance to man's well-being ? 

13. Discuss labor-organizations, capital and labor, and corporations. 



ECONOMIC PROGRESS. 551 



14. Account for the international leadership of the United States. 

15. Give some items showing our wealth and income as a people. 

16. What is meant by the free- labor system ? 

17. Are the causes of poverty more or less numerous and effective 
than in earlier ages ? 

18. Discuss the dissemination of knowledge and the printing press. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Wallace's Our Wonderful Century (Nineteenth century). 
Toynbee's The Industrial Revolution. 
Byrn's Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth Century. 
U. S. Census Reports, 1880, 1890, 1900. 
International Year Books, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1902. 
Andrews's History of the United States in Our Own Times. 
Brown's History of the United States since the Civil War. 
The Encyclopedias ; various topics and names. 
The standard U. S. Histories. 
Poole's Index to Periodical Literature. 
Biographies, etc., etc. 

ADDITIONAL TOPICS FOR DISCUSSIONS OR 
COMPOSITIONS. 

1. The Modern City Department Store. 

2. Getting out a Daily Newspaper. 

3. The Laying of the Atlantic Cable. 

4. The United States Steel Corporation. 

5. A Great Railroad System. N. Y. Central, Pennsylvania, Southern, 
Atchison, Rock Island, or Union Pacific, etc., etc. 

6. The Telephone, and Telephone Lines. 

7. The Telegraph, and Telegraph Lines. 

8. The Phonograph. 

9. Typesetting by Machinery. 

10. Government Ownership : — of Coal Mines, of Railroads, etc. 

11. Municipal Ownership: — of Street Railways, of Gas Service, of 
Water Service, etc. 

12. The " Single Tax " on Land Values. 

13. The Monthly Magazine. 

14. The Daily Life of a Wage-earner : the Farmer's Life, etc. 

15. A Great Merchant, John Jacob Astor. 

16. The Trades Union, 



552 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 

CHAPTER II. 

CULTURE. 
§ 1. The Colleges and Scientific Schools. 

The college of one hundred years ago was, in its course of 
study and in the character of its instruction, distinctly in- 
ferior to a good high school of the present day. Sopho- 
mores in those days studied arithmetic. There was a crude 
smattering of science in the curriculum, with a relatively bet- 
ter course in the Latin and Greek classics. With the growth 
of the country during the colonial period there had been 
a gradual improvement in the colleges, and in the common 
and preparatory schools. In the mere learning to read and 
write, which is the foundation of a general as well as of a 
literary education, the country to-day is much better off 
than New England was in 1700, for there were many who 
grew up wholly illiterate. The contrast between the early 
college courses of Harvard, William and Mary, and Yale, 
and those of modern colleges and universities, is very great. 

The most rapid period of growth was in the nineteenth 
century. The latter half of the century showed a very 
noticeable improvement over the first fifty years. In 1852 
Dr. Henry P. Tappan, on taking the Presidency of the 
Michigan State University at Ann Arbor, proclaimed the 
doctrine that science, the modern languages, and history 
were entitled to equal prominence with Latin, Greek, and 
mathematics in a college course. 

Already the founding of the Sheffield Scientific School at 
Yale in 1847, and of the Lawrence School of Science at 
Harvard in 1849, had indicated a new movement in education. 
Before the founding of the Sheffield School, there was but 



EDUCATION. 553 



one distinctively scientific school in the United States, — the 
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy, organized in 1824. 

To-day every large college and university has its courses 
in science, and there are about twenty independent advanced 
schools of science and technology in the United States. 
Besides the above colleges may be mentioned these : — 
Dartmouth, Amherst, Williams, Technology, Bowdoin, 
Brown, Cornell, Columbia, Western Reserve, Leland Stan- 
ford, Vanderbilt, the State Universities of Michigan, 
Illinois, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Colorado, California, and the 
endowed universities in New Jersey (Princeton College), 
Pennsylvania, New York City, and Chicago. There are 
several hundred smaller or perhaps less famous institu- 
tions. The total annual income of all of them is fifteen mil- 
lions of dollars, not a great sum for so rich a nation as ours. 

Many of the above-mentioned institutions are co-educa- 
tional, that is, for persons of both sexes. Indeed, not the 
least extraordinary feature of American education is the de- 
velopment of schools for women, with the opening to them 
of many of the schools for men. Among the higher insti- 
tutions for women are Smith, Wellesley, Mount Holyoke, 
and Bryn Mawr Colleges. In the public high schools of 
the nation are more girls than boys. The outcome of this 
will be an average higher general intelligence on the part 
of young women than on that of young men. In such a 
social condition, female suffrage is certain to spread into 
the oldest States of the Union. Among the great leaders 
of higher education have been Mark Hopkins, Timothy 
D wight, Mary Lyon, Catharine Beecher, James B. Angell, 
Henry Barnard, Julius H. Seelye, Charles W. Eliot, and 
G. Stanley Hall. 



554 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 2. Special Education. 

The specialization of education has now gone so far, that 
whatever profession or business or trade a student may 
wish to enter, he will find a special school or a special de- 
partment or course of study in some college or university 
or institute that will instruct him, be it farming, diplomacy, 
banking, merchandising, theology, law, engineering, medi- 
cine, journalism, carpentry, plumbing, iron-working, or any 
one of .a hundred other vocations or occupations. 

Schools that specifically teach various trades and occu- 
pations, some of them in their higher departments approxi- 
mating the character of scientific or technological institutes, 
may be found in many cities. Notable among them are the 
New York Trade Schools started in 1881. 

The first medical school in the United States, the Col- 
lege of Philadelphia, was founded in 1765. The medical 
schools of the country now number about one hundred and 
fifty. The first law school was established by Judge 
Tapping Reeve in 1782 at Litchfield, Connecticut. There 
are now about seventy-five law schools in the United States. 

Public normal schools for the training of teachers are 
now recognized as a most valuable adjunct to our system 
of free common education. One hundred years ago almost 
anyone who could read and write was thought good enough to 
teach a country school, but a very different idea of the quali- 
fications proper to a teacher now prevails. This is largely 
due to the influence of good normal schools. They had 
their beginning in 1839; in which year the normal school at 
Lexington, Massachusetts, began its work. There are now 
about one hundred and fifty schools of this kind, private 
and public, in the United States, 



THE COMMON SCHOOLS. 555 



§ 3. Free Common Education : Illiteracy and Inefficiency. 

In Massachusetts Bay Colony free common education 
had its beginning. In the earliest days such education was 
given in Connecticut and New Amsterdam also. But our 
present system, prevailing in every State, Territory, Depen- 
dency, and Protectorate of the United States, and giving a 
unique character to American democracy, dates from the 
middle of the nineteenth century. Then our statesmen 
began fully to realize that the intelligence and morality of 
the citizens as well as liberal institutions of government are 
essential to a republic. 

The first organized school systems with superintendents 
in cities began in the decades just before the War of 
Secession. Then also were adopted the State systems. 
The improvement of our free common schools, with kinder- 
gartens, grammar schools, high schools, evening schools and 
lecture courses, normal schools and universities, has been 
the price of our security as a citizenship of men equal 
before the law. In these schools all subjects are taught, 
from reading to the trades and professions. Many of the 
buildings are handsome, and well equipped with excellent 
ventilation and sanitation systems. In them are not only 
principals and grade teachers, but also specialists in music, 
fine arts, science, domestic and industrial arts, and also 
medical inspectors and others, who care for the health 
and the welfare of the individuals and the neighboring 
community. Among the greatest leaders of free common 
education have been Horace Mann, Francis W. Parker, 
George Howland, William T. Harris, and William H. Max- 
well. William Swinton was perhaps our greatest common 
school text-book maker. 



556 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



The standard American school is free, public, common, 
graded, and taught by experts, using free text-books supplied 
by the municipality, in a schoolhouse scientifically planned 
and artistically constructed. And education is practically 
universal. With the development of manual, technical and 
scientific training in our common schools, we are rising 
above the former standard, by which only illiterates were 
considered uneducated. By the new standard the educated 
man must be able not only to read and to write but also 
to make things. By this new standard we call not only 
illiterates but also inefncients uneducated. The total an- 
nual cost of all kinds of education is less than three hun- 
dred millions of dollars annually, that is, 60 per cent of the 
cost of meat for all our people, 40 per cent of the cost of 
tobacco, and 25 per cent of the cost of alcoholic beverages. 

§ 4. Public Libraries. 
Among the educational influences that promote culture, 
public libraries occupy an important place. There are 
comparatively few people in this country to-day who are 
not within a few miles of a public library. In many of the 
States, notably Massachusetts and New Hampshire, there is 
hardly a country town of five hundred people or over with- 
out its public library. 

§ 5. Early Literature. 

The growth of literature in this country has fnlly kept 
pace with the increase of material wealth. In the early 
days, when colleges were teaching arithmetic, a solitary and 
gloomy poet in New England, the Rev. Michael Wiggles- 
worth, published at Boston a poem in two hundred and 
twenty-four stanzas, entitled the " Day of Doom," which 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MIND. 



557 



proved to be the most popular literary work of the early 
colonial period. It was a lurid description prophesying the 
Day of Judgment and the inexpressible torments of a lost 
souls " ; and for a hundred years after its publication in 
1662 no other book in New England sold so well. History 
records that peddlers hawked it from house to house, and 
that children learned it with their catechisms. 

This sort of " literature " passed away with the advent 
of science and the diffusion of knowledge. Like alchemy, 




Library of Congress at Washington. 

soothsaying, sorcery, clairvoyance, and other superstitions, 
it lingers here and there in the minds of but a few unfortu- 
nate people to whom modern thought and science have not 
yet brought their messages of freedom through truth. 

In the early part of the eighteenth century the " Magnalia " 
of Cotton Mather appeared, a work on the church history of 
New England. A number of political pamphlets were issued 



558 THE PEOGBESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



from time to time, but volumes of sermons from the pens of 
orthodox clergymen made by far the largest part of the 
published literature of New England in that era. Not 
until Jonathan Edwards and Benjamin Franklin began to 
write, was literature produced in this country that the 
lapse of time has stamped as good. " Edwards on the 
Will " is still recognized as a monumental work of intellect; 
and "Poor Richard's Sayings," with many other writings of 
Franklin, who was the first great American humorist as well 
as philosopher and scientist, will always be valued as among 
the most useful and suggestive works of literature. 

In 1789 a volume of essays entitled " The Federalist," 
and written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay to explain the 
meaning and intent of the new Constitution of the United 
States, was published. As a piece of political writing, it 
was without an equal at that time in philosophic insight 
and luminous statement. As an exposition of the Consti- 
tution, it has never been equaled since, and is not likely to 
be superseded in the future. 

§ 6. Early Nineteenth Century Writers. 

In the early part of the nineteenth century there were indi- 
cations that America was beginning to have some general 
literature of her own that was worth reading even in Old 
England. Washington Irving produced " Knickerbocker's 
History of New York" in 1809, a work of quaint and 
original humor, not too much to be relied upon as a faithful, 
historical picture, and the "Sketch Book "about ten years 
later. Bryant's " Thanatopsis " appeared in 1812, the first 
of American poems that displayed real genius. Cooper in 
1821 published " The Spy," the first American novel that 



AMERICAN HISTORY'. 559 



attracted the attention of the world. Cooper followed this 
with a series known as " The Leatherstocking Tales," which 
in England were ranked with the romances of Walter 
Scott. Indeed, the strong, native flavor of these tales, which 
depicted scenes of Indian and frontier life, touched the jaded 
palate of the Old World with an unwonted stimulus. They 
were translated into several foreign languages, and did 
much to interest the continent of Europe in America. 

§ 7. American Historians. 
In 1834 Bancroft published the first volume of his nota- 
ble " History of the United States." A few years later Pres- 
cott's " Conquest of Mexico," " Reign of Ferdinand and 
Isabella," and " Conquest of Peru," established his fame as 
one of the most interesting and picturesque of historians. 
Still later, Motley's " Rise and Fall of the Dutch Republic " 
and " History of the, United Netherlands " gave him the repu- 
tation of a great historian. Francis Parkman, who in the last 
quarter century published a series of historical narratives 
under the general title of " France and England in North 
America," is considered one of the greatest historical writers 
of all ages, ranking with Herodotus, Thucydides, Livy, and 
Gibbon. Nor can we omit the names of such an historical 
philosopher as John Fiske and of those painstaking historical 
scholars, John Bach McMaster, James Schouler, and James 
Ford Rhodes, all writers upon American history. 

§ 8. Other Writers of Genius. 
Edgar Allan Poe, with a weird and vivid imagination, 
gave us a large number of short stories and a few poems, 
that are works of unquestioned genius. Nathaniel Haw- 
thorne, with an imagination saner than Poe's, and equally 



560 



THE PROGRESS OE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 




vivicl, left the reputation of being the most artistic 
American writer of fiction. His " Scarlet Letter " is an 
immortal story of early New England life, and with the 
" House of the Seven Gables " gives a striking picture of 
the conditions and characteristics of Puritan life. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson, poet, essayist, and lecturer, is 
the most suggestive and stimulating intellectual influence 
that America has given to the world. He was not a pro- 
found student or a systematic 
thinker. He did not aim at consist- 
ency, and had no desire to found a 
school of thought or an "ism" of any 
kind, but his utterances have come 
closer to the hearts of men than 
those of any mere philosopher that 
*j^ / the world ever saw. Emerson was 

/ a seer and a prophet, a kindly £,nd 
magnanimous spectator and critic 
of man's individual and social life. 
Harriet Beecher Stowe is credited 
with bringing about greater politi- 
cal results with her story, " Uncle 
Tom's Cabin," than ever were 
effected before or since by a writer of fiction. This book 
struck the system of slavery in this country a blow from 
which it never recovered. Although in comparison with 
" Uncle Tom's Cabin," the other works of this writer are 
little known. - From a literary and artistic standpoint " The 
Minister's Wooing " and " Oldtown Folks " are her finest 
efforts, and in them we have true pictures of New England 
life as it was in the early years of the nineteenth century. 



Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

Born 1803 ; died I 882. 

Poet: Essayist: Philosopher 

Lecturer. 



THE NEW ENGLAND POETS. 



561 




§ 9. Poetry in New England. 
James Russell Lowell, poet, essayist, and critic, author of 

the famous " Biglow Papers," 

which are political satires, and the 

most popular Minister ever sent 

to England by this country, is 

one of the foremost names in 

American literature. Lowell, 

with his friends, Oliver Wendell 

Holmes, poet, prose-writer, and 

humorist, and Longfellow, the 

best known of American poets, has 

done much to confirm Boston's 

title, " The Athens of America." 

They were contemporaries in liter- 
ary work during the forty most 

stirring years of the nation's his- 
tory, from 184:0 to 1880, covering 
the period of the Mexican War, 
the anti-slavery agitation, the 
War of Secession, and the era of 
reconstruction and reconciliation. 
During the same period, and 
not far away from Boston, lived 
John Greenleaf Whittier, the good 
Quaker poet, who loved human 
freedom and the world of Nature 
with equal strength, and devoted 
his genius to the anti-slavery move- 
Bom, 1 809 ; died, 1 894. ment and to the portrayal of New 

Physician: Essayist: Poet: Novelist: 
Professor, Harvard Medical School. Ellglaild character aild SCdiery. 



Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 

Born, 1807 ; died, I 882. 

Poet; Novelist: Professor, Harvard 

College. 




562 THE PROGRESS OE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 




§ 10. Other Writers of Note. 

The poet, Walt Whitman, very unlike any other Ameri- 
can, made his appearance a few years before the War of 

Secession, and received cordial 
greeting from Emerson in this 
country and Tennyson in Eng- 
land. He was rough, rude, and 
not at all rhythmical. His plain 
verses had neither rhyme nor 
meter; they looked like prose 
chopped off in various lengths ; 
but there was an elemental 
strength and freshness in his 
writing that captivated discern- 
ing minds. He was an apostle 
of universal humanity and of 
American democracy. Nothing 
that concerned men was foreign to him. He has been ad- 
mitted into the manuals of literature, and is known now as 
the « Good Gray Poet." 

Among the later authors of the nineteenth century may be 
mentioned William D. Howells, Henry James, and Thomas 
B. Aldrich, novelists and story- wri ters ; James Whitcomb 
Riley, the home poet of Indiana ; Bret Harte, the California 
story-teller; Samuel L. Clemens, better known as Mark 
Twain, the great American humorist, and more than humorist 
in his delineations of the many phases of American life on 
the Mississippi and in the far West ; Mary Wilkins, the 
novelist of modern New England life ; John Burroughs, 
essayist of the fields and woods ; Charles Dudley Warner, 
critic, essayist, and story-teller; Sidney Lanier, the poet of 



John Greenleaf Whittier. 

Born, 1807 ; died, 1892. 

Poet; Editor. 



CURRENT PERIODICALS. 



563 



Georgia ; and George W. Cable, the novelist of Louisiana. 
Still others, of more recent appearance, but likely to be 
remembered in the history of American letters, are Winston 
Churchill, the historical novelist; Frank Norris, the novel- 
ist who, until his untimely death, dealt, as a literary phil- 
osopher, successfully with modern social conditions ; George 
E. Woodberry, poet and critic ; and James Lane Allen, the 
novelist of Kentucky. 

We must add also to this list, too short to do justice 
to American talent, Louisa May Alcott, writer of immortal 
books for boys and girls. 

§ 11. Current Literature. 

The literature poured out by the printing-press, in the 
latter half especially of the nineteenth century, in the form 
of newspapers, magazines, and peri- 
odicals, has been enormous, and the 
educational results have been wide- 
spread and often deep. The gen- 
eral intelligence of Americans, our 
knowledge of the world and of its 
historical development, and our 
interest in political and social ques- 
tions, are due in a very large de- 
gree to these ephemeral products 
of the press. The modern Amerp 
can daily newspaper, weekly papers, 
and monthly magazines are tri- 
umphs of literary facility, inven- 
tive skill, and business enterprise. 




Natnamel Hawthorne. 

Bom, I 804; died, I 864. 

Novelist. 



man's door fresh information 
thought of all the world. 



They bring to every 
of the affairs and of the 



564 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 13. Public Lectures. 

The lyceum system of lectures, which originated in 
Boston about 1830, in a few years became a distinct and 
valuable educational power. Among the celebrated names 
that lent luster to the lecture platform were those of Ralph 
Waldo Emerson, Wendell Phillips, Edwin Hubbell Chapin, 
Henry Ward Beecher, and Horace Greeley. The Lyceum 
was originally a literary association that held meetings for 
literary exercises apart from lectures, but the name in time 
came to represent associations formed for the purpose of 
securing courses of lectures during the winter season for 
their community. 

Literary clubs still exist in great numbers. From time 
to time there are revivals of interest in different depart- 
ments of literature. Recently there was a spread of enthusi- 
asm about Robert Browning, which resulted in the formation 
of hundreds of reading clubs devoted to the elucidation of 
the fascinating mysteries of that great English poet. 

Shakespearean and dramatic clubs are numerous nowa- 
days, and in many towns and cities amateur theatricals 
excite great social interest. 

§ 14. Art. 

America has not yet developed a distinctive national art 
comparable with that of Italy or of Greece. We have had, 
however, many wealthy and often intelligent purchasers 
of art products and a few native artists. Among these are' 
to be included James A. M. Whistler, John S. Sargent, 
Cecilia Beaux, and, in earlier days, Benjamin West and 
Gilbert Stuart, all famous portrait painters. 

Henry H. Richardson, architect, gave our nation high 
rank in building beautiful and commodious structures. 



FAIRS. , 5Q5 



The American sculptor, Augustus St. Gaudens, a native 
of Ireland, has produced many notable works. 

The New York Metropolitan Art Museum has the largest 
among many large collections of art treasures in America. 
There are also other fine Art Museums in the great cities. 




:.'.';;.»;:..■.'.. 



Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. 

§ 15. Fairs. 

The great expositions at Philadelphia in 1876, Chicago 
in 1893, and Buffalo in 1901, have spread new ideas and 
influences through the country, and have done on a large 
scale what for many years State and county fairs have been 
doing in lesser degree. The origin of these fairs dates 
back to 1810, when Elkanah Watson, a merchant of Albany 
and an owner of a farm near Pittsfield, Massachusetts, origi- 
nated and managed an agricultural fair at the latter place. 
In 1815 he organized an agricultural society at Albany, and 
established fairs and cattle shows in neighboring coun- 
ties, and a few years later secured an appropriation from 
the New York State Legislature for yearly State fairs. 



566 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



There are now hundreds of county fairs held every year, 
and almost every State has its own annual fair. In these 
expositions the range of exhibits has grown with the growth 
of the country, and there is now hardly a county fair so 
small that it does not have, in addition to a show of cattle, 
horses, sheep, poultry, and agricultural products, an ex- 
hibition of domestic and industrial arts, including the finer 
arts of elegant needlework and embroideries. Water-color 
and oil pictures may be seen in many local fairs. Native 
genius is often brought to the public attention for the first 
time at a county fair. The county fair stimulates local 
pride, and tends to the general diffusion of useful knowl- 
edge. It is on the same general plan of the humble county 
fair that the great State fairs are organized, and the grand 
national and international expositions which cap the climax. 

§ 16. National Associations. 
There are various scientific and learned societies in the 
United States which are collectors and dispensers of knowl- 
edge. Any one who has an interest in any special science 
or department of knowledge is likely to find a national asso- 
ciation that investigates, collates, and gives out accurate 
information on the subject. Among the most influential of 
these cultural associations are : The American Historical 
Association, The American Economic Association, The 
American Academy of Political and Social Science, The 
Association for the Advancement of Science, and the various 
professional associations, The National Educational Associa- 
tion for teachers, The National Bar Association for lawyers, 
and The American Medical Society for physicians. In the 
aggregate an immense amount of knowledge is thus diffused. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING. 567 



§ 17. Physical Training. 

The true ideal of humanity is a sound mind in a sound 
body. The last fifty years of the nineteenth century wit- 
nessed a remarkable development of athletic sports and con- 
tests in the United States, including both sexes in its wonder- 
ful growth. In the year 1852, Yale and Harvard rowed their 
first intercollegiate boat-race in a pair of eight-oared barges 
on Lake Winnipiseogee, New Hampshire. After a few con- 
tests at intervals of two or three years an annual boat-race 
between Yale and Harvard was instituted. With the ex- 
ample of these older colleges before them, the younger ones 
took up the sport, and now almost every university and col- 
lege that has water facilities engages in the sport of rowing. 

Some years later, in the sixties, the great American game 
of baseball was taken up by the colleges and by the 
general public as well. The popularity of this game is with- 
out precedent, surpassing that of cricket in England. No 
town is so small now as not to have its representative nine, 
and innumerable clubs of boys all over the country practice 
the game and develop candidates for future honors in pro- 
fessional baseball, where fame and large salaries await the 
successful few. 

With a clientage perhaps as large as that of baseball, lawn 
tennis has within the last twenty-five years accomplished 
a most beneficent work. It is a favorite home game of those 
who have space for it upon land adjoining their houses. 
It is a game promoted also by hundreds of clubs. Its best 
feature, perhaps, is that women play it as often and almost 
as well as men. It affords a maximum of excellent exer- 
cise within a limited space, and requires hygienic dress. It 
brings into play every muscle of the body, and has had 



568 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION, 



much to do with the creation of the well-known type of 
the American athletic girl. 

The latest of field sports to extend all over the country 
is the Scottish game of golf. While its devotees are not as 
numerous as those of tennis, and its requirements are large 
in the way of grounds for playing, it has created a great 
social interest. Women as well as men play golf. It is an 
outdoor sport giving exercise for all parts of the body, and 
is likely to be as permanent as it is valuable. 




Steam Automobile, 1801. 

The most spectacular and interesting athletic sport of 
the day, and the one that collects the greatest crowds of 
sight-seers, is football. This sport revives the intense in- 
terest that of old attended the gladiatorial games at Rome. 
It is a contest of physical strength, quickness, and skill, 

Polo, played with ponies, is a game in which few can 
take part, It Ji ft luxury- pf the healthy and energetic sons; 
of rich pien, Ag & corrective, of Mfen©i8 and as $ specter 

cte of fttarcbtag tatoest i\ km toft welcomed 



ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 



569 



An even more expensive sport is yachting, in which, as 
seen in the international races for the famous " America's 
Cup," the public takes the liveliest interest. 

The introduction of the present type of bicycle about 
fifteen years ago marked the beginning of a sport that in 
a few years developed many features of utility. The rela- 
tive values of sport and of utility in the bicycle have 
become very much the same as those of pleasure-driving to 
the business use of the horse. We have bicycle races in 
plenty and a mul- 
titude of pleasure 
riders and tour- 
ists, but the fa- 
cility and rapidity 
with which the 
bicycle enables 
man or woman to 
travel over road 
and path gives 
it a purely busi- 
ness value unsus- 
pected in its early 
days. The country-woman now goes to market on a wheel. 
The postman and the errand boy use it. The business man 
rides it to and from his work. It serves more economically 
and quickly than a horse, except in rain or snow. 

As a matter of exercise, the bicycle is the most valuable 
invention of the age ; and since women and children use it 
freely, it contributes with tennis and golf to the general 
Up-building of the nation's physical health, 

A very recent development of American mechanical skill 




Modern Automobile. 
(Showing interior construction.) 



570 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



is the automobile for pleasure and for business. An im- 
mense amount of capital is already invested in the business, 
nearly $400,000,000. We have automobiles for a single 
person and for heavy freight loads, run by gasoline- and by 
steam-engines, and by electric motors. The automobile is 
doing away with the horse, revolutionizing street pave- 
ments, and greatly increasing the speed of all transportation 
on country roads, as well as in city streets. 

Among other sports that develop and benefit the human 
body and that have had a noticeable growth in this country 
are bowling and basketball, the latter a special favorite with 
women. It has some of the good points of football without 
its most objectionable roughness. 

With all these modes of diversion tending to physical 
improvement we have not by any means exhausted the list. 
Skating, swimming, fencing, boxing, wrestling, lacrosse, 
hockey, billiards, curling, roque, ping-pong, racquets, polo, 
handball, and squash, all contribute to the same end; and 
the sports of fishing and hunting involve physical exertion 
and out-of-door living much to the benefit of the devotees. 
With all these, and other sports not mentioned, the people 
of the United States are generally keeping their bodies 
vigorous and their minds clear. We must except only 
those who engage in distinctly unhealthful occupations, 
the workers underground, the factory-operatives in certain 
lines of manufacture, and the women who keep too much 

indoors. 

§ 18. Philosophy and Science. 

In pure science America has not yet made a great name. 
This is also true of our success in philosophy, though our 
Emerson in moral philosophy is the peer of any sage of all 



SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY. 



571 



time, and though Edwards made an immortal name in 
theology. But in general the American genius is practical. 
In applied science we produced Edison and adopted 
Ericsson and others : and of Edison it is strictly true that 
he has proven himself the greatest inventor of all ages. 
Roebling, who built the great Brooklyn suspension bridge, 
will be long remembered as a scientific engineer. Yet in 
general science 
and philosophy 
there are certain 
American names 
that all ought 
to know : our 
adopted citizen 
Agassiz, Swiss 
by birth, and 
Audubon, natur- 
alists; Newcomb, 
Young, and Low- 
ell, astronomers ; 
Remsen, chem- 
ist; Hall, anthro- 
pologist, educa- 
tor and psycholo- 
gist; Harris, phil- 
osopher and edu- 
cator ; James, 
Tichenor, Royce, 
and . Baldwin, 
psychologists; March, philologist; Ward and Giddings, 
I sociologists ; and Loeb, biologist. 




The Great Telescope at Lick Observatory, California. 



572 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 19. Medical Science. 

In no field have greater advances been made in the last 
fifty years than in that of the science of medicine, and of 
the allied art of surgery. The use of anaesthetics, the anti- 
septic treatment of wounds, the discoveries relating to the 
germ theory of diseases, are saving thousands of lives every 
week. The skill of surgeons is now so far superior to that 
of their fathers, that operations deemed fatal fifty years ago 
are now performed with almost uniform success. Special 
endowments for medical research have been made during 
the last few years. With one discovery after another we 
are now on the way towards the extermination of disease. 
A notable instance in this line is the discovery by Ameri- 
can physicians in Cuba that the poison of yellow fever is 
communicated by mosquitoes of a certain variety. The 
practical abolition of yellow fever at Havana, Avhere from 
time immemorial it had been endemic, is one of the most 
striking and valuable results of the late war with Spain. 

The multiplication of hospitals is another indication, of 
the progress made in the treatment of disease and in the 
alleviation of suffering. In the city of New York to-day 
there are over a hundred and forty hospitals of all kinds. 
Special hospitals for special forms of disease are a noticeable 
feature in the system. In the country at large, hospitals 
are numbered by thousands. 

§ 20. Improvement in Health. 

The immense advances made in wealth and in intelli- 
gence have been accompanied by equally great advances in 
the physical health and in morals. By means of telephone 
and of typewriter, of steel machinery and of general educa- 
tion, we can do more each day of the greatly lengthened 



THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT. 573 

human life. The improvement in health gives us more 
power to work : we can get work done faster so as to have 
more time left for rest, recreation, play, amusement, study. 
Similarly, the general advance in morality has put the 
average man in better spirit and in better strength for 
work. The great temperance movement begun by Lyman 
Beecher a century ago and continued to this day chiefly by 
women, may not have accomplished all its purpose : but it 
has certainly wrought a great reform in the general social 
habits of drinking alcoholic intoxicants. Among the women 
leaders in this great reform Frances E. Willard will never 
be forgotten. 

§ 21. Fraternal Societies. 

Among the influences that are molding our civilization 
and culture we should not overlook those organizations 
which emphasize the idea of the brotherhood of man, and 
which are known in a general way as fraternal societies. 
The membership of these societies in . the United States 
and Canada is between six and seven millions. The largest 
of them are the Odd Fellows, with over 1,000,000, and the 
Free Masons with over 900,000 members. Besides these 
there are thirty or more fraternities with memberships 
ranging from 20,000 to 600,000, most of them making a 
specialty of mutual life insurance, and of assistance in 
cases of sickness, accident, or misfortune. There is nothing, 
probably, in the constitutions of any of these secret fraternal 
societies that contravenes in any degree the rights and 
duties of good citizenship. On the contrary, there is un- 
doubtedly much that tends to the general good of all, for 
there is no greater good than brotherly love, and no better 
work than practical charity. 



574 THE PROGRESS OE AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 






§ 22. Religion in America. 
We call ours a Christian nation, by which we mean that 
all Americans look upon the standards of the Sermon on 
the Mount in the gospel of Jesus Christ as ideals. A very 
large proportion of Americans belong to the Christian 
churches. Of these the following have the largest mem- 
berships — viz., Catholic, Methodist-Episcopal, Baptist, 

Episcopal, Presbyterian, Congre- 
gational, Unitarian, Universalist. 
There are also many others. 

§ 23. Great Philanthropists. 

America is unique among the 
nations for her free universal edu- 
cation, the guarantee of her lib- 
erties. She has the distinction of 
having more very rich men who 
hold their vast treasures as public 
trusts than any other nation. 
Among the great philanthropists 
who have made their names im- 
mortal are George Peabody, Peter 
Cooper, Ezra Cornell, Charles Pratt, John D. Rockefeller, 
and Andrew Carnegie. It is the peculiar glory of America 
that almost every multi-millionaire, many a millionaire, and 
here and there a man merely well-to-do, at his death, if 
not before, gives a considerable part of his fortune to the 
great benefactions of humanity, — the university, the hospi- 
tal, the library, the missionary society, the local charity. 
The ties of family at times seem weak among us, but 
the sense of each and all as being parts of the family of 
man is strong. 




Petet Cooper. 

Inventor: Manufacturer: 

Philanthropist. 

Born, 1791 ; died, 1883. 



AMERICAN CULTURE. 575 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Give an account of education in America; both higher and 
elementary. 

2. Discuss our greatest men of letters. 

3. What are the relations to the public intelligence of : libraries, lec- 
tures, art museums ? 

4. What is the value of fairs ? 

5. Discuss the diffusion of knowledge by national associations. 

6. Discuss the national games and sports in relation to health. 

7. What are some of the best known names in science ? 

8. What has been the progress of medical science '? 

9. Discuss fraternal societies. 

10. What are the great churches ? 

11. Discuss philanthropy. 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

See Chapter I., Part Six. 

Also Reports U. S. Commissioner of Education. 

Reports of National Societies, Missionary Societies, Churches, Hospitals, 

Colleges, Asylums, Prisons, etc., etc. 
Current Magazines. Standard Encyclopedias. 
Books on the Various Subjects in the Text. 

Among the best short histories of American literature are those by 
Bates, Trent, Woodberry, Wendell, Abernethy, Pancoast, Painter, Lawton. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSIONS OR COMPOSITIONS. 

1. History of a Great University, College, or Institute : e g., Harvard. 

2. The Life of a Great Man : see text of Chapter. 

3. The First Grammar Schools : in Massachusetts ; in New York. 

4. A Great Historical Work: e.g., Fiske's Old Virginia and Her 
Neighbors. 

5. A Great Example of Literature : eg., Lowell's Biglow Papers. 

6. The Story of a Pair. 

7. Description of a Game or Sport. 

8. Anaesthetics in Medicine : Eye-surgery : Anti-toxin. 

9. The Temperance Movement. 

10. Private Philanthropy : e.g., The Slater Fund. 

11. Public Philanthropy : e.g., A State Asylum for the Insane. 

12. Modern Prison Reform. 



576 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 

CHAPTER III. 

SELF-GO YERNMENT. 

§ 1. The Franchise, or Right to Vote. 

The suffrage, which is the right to vote on political ques- 
tions and for candidates for public office, is a gift of the State 
through the law-making power. Sometimes the suffrage is 
a matter of mutual understanding among those who propose 
to organize a government, as in the Mayflower Compact. 
Sometimes the franchise, or right of suffrage, is conferred 
expressly by a charter that precedes and provides for the 
organization of government. Or the suffrage may be a 
matter of agreement or decree after organization, but in all 
cases it is a privilege conferred. No man votes because he 
thinks he has the right to vote, but only because the gov- 
ernment says that on certain conditions he may vote. In 
early times this right was the privilege of the few free men. 
§ 2. The Franchise in Virginia. 

The provisions for and the regulation of the franchise, 
which in respect to the suffrage means freedom to vote, 
varied greatly in the early colonies. The managers of the 
London Company were members of the liberal party of 
that day in England. They resolved to give the colonists 
the right to enact laws so " that they might have a hand in 
governing themselves." With this inspiration the eleven 
boroughs of Virginia were called upon to elect two repre- 
sentatives each, to meet with the governor and his council. 
The first Legislature in America met in the summer of 
1619 in the little church at Jamestown. At first, under 
invitation of the proprietors, all freemen in the colony had 
the right to vote for these representatives, or burgesses as 



THE FRANCHISE. 577 



they were called, but fifty years later it was enacted by 
them that in accordance with English precedent none but 
householders and owners of real estate should have a voice 
in the election of burgesses. 

§ 3. The Franchise in Massachusetts. 

The original charter of Massachusetts provided that the 
freemen of the colony should elect a governor, a deputy 
governor, and a council of eighteen. The council was to 
meet in what was called a " General Court," that is, a legis- 
lature, and to make all needful laws not contrary to the laws 
of England. Two years later, in 1631, the suffrage was 
limited by the following statute ; viz., — 

" To the end that the body of the commons may be pre- 
served of honest and good men, no man shall be admitted 
to the freedom of this body politic, but such as are mem- 
bers of some of the churches within the limits of the 
same." 

It was provided, ten years later, that anyone, voter or 
not, should have the right of making any necessary motion, 
complaint, or petition in any court, council, or town meet- 
ing. In 1647 the General Court granted to all persons 
of good character, whether church members or not, the right 
to vote in town meetings on local questions, to serve on 
juries, and to become candidates for town offices. Still 
later the conditions of admission to church membership 
were made easier by the introduction of what was called by 
its opponents the " half-way covenant," which greatly in- 
creased the number of church members. 

Thus, both in Virginia and in Massachusetts the origi- 
nal franchise rights of freemen were curtailed by later 
legislation. 



578 THE PKOGKESS OF AMEKICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 4. The Franchise in Other Colonies. 

In Pennsylvania the charter of William Penn provided 
that the right to vote for members of the Assembly should 
be given only to men of good character who held the Chris- 
tian faith and were taxpayers. The people of New York 
Colony, after it passed from the control of the Dutch to the 
English, acquired a limited suffrage. Georgia, under the 
paternal supervision of Oglethorpe, granted its colonists 
neither votes nor voice in its government. Not until 
Georgia became a royal colony in 1752, was the suffrage 
given to Georgians. In the Carolinas, also proprietary colo- 
nies, the people had no vote until after they were made 
royal provinces. Rhode Island and Connecticut were little 
republics from the start, and elected their own governors 
and legislatures, but the right of suffrage in each was 
limited as in other colonies. 

At the time of the Revolution a property qualification 
for suffrage was required by all the colonies. In Rhode 
Island a high property qualification was maintained until 
the year 1842, when the outbreak known as the "Dorr 
Rebellion " emphasized a protest against it by the people of 
the State, and the law was modified. 

§ 5. Manhood Suffrage Became Universal. 

In all the colonies except Pennsylvania, Delaware, and 
Rhode Island, Catholics were disfranchised. It was not 
until after the making of the Constitution of the United 
States that manhood suffrage, as we understand it at this 
day, came into being. The whole spirit of the Constitution 
favored freedom and the abolition of needless restrictions 
upon the franchise. The first of the ten Amendments 



FEMALE SUFFRAGE. 579 



offered and adopted within a few years after its framing, 
declared against any law prohibiting the free exercise of 
religion. From that time religions discriminations in State 
Constitutions and laws were doomed, though in Massachu- 
setts it was not until 1833 that the last vestige of its old 
church policy disappeared. 

Four new States, Vermont in 1791, Kentucky in 1792, 
Tennessee in 1796, and Ohio in 1803, all with Constitu- 
tions recognizing manhood suffrage, became members of the 
Union. Now there is not a trace in any State law of a dis- 
crimination in suffrage against any form of religion, and 
hardly a vestige of the former property qualifications which 
were general in the colonies. With disappearance of the 
property qualifications there disappeared also the right of 
property-holding women to the franchise, a right that had 
been common in early days. There prevails in several 
States an intellectual test, in that only those may vote who 
can read and write the Constitution of the United States. 

§ 6. The Return and Enlargement of Female Suffrage. 

A very significant enlargement of the suffrage has been 
made within the last few years, in the removal of the dis- 
crimination against women in some of the Western States. 
Encouraged by the example of Wyoming, which some twenty 
years ago gave women the ballot, three other States, Colo- 
rado, Idaho, and Utah, have made women as voters equal 
with men. It is not unlikely that other States may do 
likewise. 

Partial enfranchisement has been given women in some of 
the States, — the right to vote on school questions, and, when 
property-holders, on tax matters ; so that in a limited way 



580 



THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



woman suffrage may be said to exist in New York, and in 
twenty-three other States and Territories besides the four 
first mentioned. It remains now to be seen how strong the 
demand is on the part of womankind for complete enfran- 
chisement ; and there is very little doubt that if they on the 
whole want the ballot very much, they will get it in time in 
any State where they are willing to work for it. 

The fact that in these times there are twice as many 
women as men who are graduates of high schools and acad- 
emies, has strengthened the movements for giving women 
equal rights of property and citizenship with men. As the 
great champions of female suffrage — Susan B. Anthony 
and Elizabeth Cady Stanton — have long argued, there is no 
good reason for withholding the suffrage from women that 

does not equally apply to many 
men ; and most of the reasons for 
granting it to all men apply equally 
to all women ; while any restric- 
tions of the suffrage based on edu- 
cation or property, ought to apply 
equally to men and to women. 

§ 7. The Franchise for the Negroes. 
In recent years there has been 
in the Southern States an impor- 
tant movement tending to deprive 
the Negroes of the franchise as 
guaranteed to them in the Four- 
teenth Amendment to the Consti- 
tution. The outcome of this will be of the greatest impor- 
tance. The ballot is a bulwark to protect the individual 




Charles Sumner. 

Senator from Massachusetts : Cham 

pion of Civil Rights for the Negroes 

Born, 1811; died 1872. 



LESSONS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT. 581 



and persons of his class from oppression by all others. Dis- 
franchisement is a step toward subordination and is the 
beginning of inequality. 

§ 8. Lessons in Self-government. 

The most important lessons in self-government are 
learned not so much in National as in State and municipal 
politics. Every American is subject to four or five 
Governments, — the Nation, the State, the County, and the 
City, Town, or Village, with sometimes the School District 
added. Of these the State touches him on more points 
and in more important personal ways than all the others 
combined. By the vote, and sometimes by office-holding, 
the citizen learns and practices self-government, which is 
the only freedom. 

It is this free republican system of ours that has enabled 
us so marvelously to absorb the millions of immigrants from 
Europe. Hitherto in world-history, immigrants had to 
fight for land : we have welcomed them. 

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT. 

1. Discuss the franchise in the early colonies. 

2. Discuss " woman's rights " to the franchise. 

3. Discuss the subject of Negro suffrage. 

4. What is the value of the franchise ? 

SUGGESTED READINGS. 

Mace's Civil Government. Also Fiske's. 

Willoughby's Rights of Citizenship. 

Smith's Training for Citizenship. 

James and Sanford's Government in State and Nation. 

Nordhoff's Politics for Young Americans, 



582 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 

CHAPTER IV. 

AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY. 

§ 1. America as the Promised Land to the European Poor. 

The troubles of Europe from generation to generation 
have caused many of its people to seek homes of freedom 
and opportunity far away from the scenes of the Old World. 
Since the time of Raleigh's attempts to found a colony till 
now, every great European war, domestic or international, 
and every religious or political disturbance in Europe, has 
resulted in emigration to America. Throughout Europe 
from Portugal to the interior of Russia, America is known 
as the "land of the free and the home of the brave." It is 
the dream of the European poor to reach some day this 
happy country. The only nation in Europe that has not 
sent many emigrants to the United States is Spain, which, 
however, has sent millions of people to Central and South 
America. 

§ 2. The Causes that Led to the Establishment of Port Royal, 
St. Augustine, and Roanoke. 

In 1517 a great agitation in Catholic Christianity in 
Europe found its leader in Martin Luther of Germany, who 
represented the central force in the Protestant Reformation. 
The development of Protestantism in Germany, Holland, 
Switzerland, France, Spain, and England, hitherto wholly 
Catholic countries, led to great civil commotion from that 
time on for a century and a half. The unfortunate French 
colony that Ribault and Coligny tried to establish in Florida 
was intended as a home for the French Protestants called 
Huguenots. At that time the aristocratic French Monarchy 
was wavering between Protestantism and Catholicism. The 



CORRELATIONS OF HISTORY. 583 



Spanish king, Philip II, who was also German Emperor, 
was making every effort to force the French king, Charles 
IX, to remain Catholic. He sent Menendez to Florida to 
destroy the Huguenot colony at Port Royal and to found 
the Catholic colony at St. Augustine, 1565. 

The efforts of Sir Walter Raleigh to establish a colony in 
Virginia found popular support in England because that 
country had become Protestant, and he hoped to develop a 
great Protestant empire in America, equal to the great 
Catholic empire of Spain. 

§ 3. The Causes that Led to Spain's Losses and to England's 
Gains in America. 

In the hundred years following the discovery of America 
by Columbus, a fierce religious struggle raged in Spain, and 
millions of Spanish Protestants were destroyed. The story 
of the horrors of the Spanish Inquisition is the story of how 
Spain ruined herself by killiug off so many of her best 
people. To be a Protestant was held by the Spanish courts 
as being a traitor. During this period, Spain took from 
the New World gold, silver, jewels, and other wealth equal 
in value to sixty billions of dollars, — an amount as large 
as the total wealth of the United States as late as 1880. 

With such resources, Spain, at that time the most power- 
ful nation in the world, had her opportunity to become the 
greatest nation in all history. But, instead, her substance 
was wasted in civil and international wars for the suppres- 
sion of Protestantism. The overthrow of Spain dates from 
1588, when the Spanish Armada was almost annihilated 
by the British fleet and by the storms of the Atlantic. This 
overthrow of Spain saved the region that is now our country 
from Spanish colonization and gave it to the English, 



584 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 

§ 4. France and New France. 

France at first was too much absorbed in religious strife 
at home to consider schemes for foreign colonization. The 
massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, 1572, marked the height 
of religious madness. In the following century, when France 
colonized Canada and Louisiana, these colonies were mon- 
archical rather than popular enterprises. It was Louis XIV, 
especially, who undertook great French settlements in 
America, and his motives were political and religious. 
§ 5. Germany and Holland. 

In Germany from 1618 to 1648 there raged the frightful 
Thirty Years' War, begun as a religious struggle, which 
reduced the population in many regions to a tenth of what it 
had been, and completely destroyed business and agriculture, 
so that for a century the poverty of the Germans was desper- 
ate. This led to emigration to Pennsylvania and elsewhere. 

Meantime Holland had ceased to be a Spanish province, 
and was gradually recovering from the fearful persecutions 
of Spain; but, like Portugal, Holland was too small to 
establish great colonial enterprises. She was a weak holder 
of New Netherlands. 

§ 6. Causes of the Puritan and Cavalier Emigrations. 

In contrast with these conditions upon the continent of 
Europe was the singular commercial progress with domestic 
peace in England. This prosperity began with the reign 
of Elizabeth and continued for half a century. Then came 
the English Civil War. The causes of this war were two, 
— an effort by the Stuarts to establish an absolute monarchy 
in England similar to that in France, and the growth of 
Protestantism. The Stuarts wished so to reduce the powers 
of Parliament that Englishmen would lose their right to 



THE OLD WORLD AND THE NEW. 585 



rule themselves. At its beginning upon the continent of 
Europe, Protestantism was an effort to change a whole peo- 
ple's religion from one form to another. In its English de- 
velopment it was an effort to divide the people of a nation into 
several religious denominations. The Protestant Reforma- 
tion became sectarian at the very time when the monarchy 
wished to become tyrannical. The departure of the Puritans 
from England to New England, 1620-1640, was the logical 
result. The overthrow of the Stuarts a few years later, 
1649, and the supremacy of the Puritans, led to the emi- 
gration of their opponents, the Cavaliers, to Virginia. 
§ 7. The Founding of the Later English Colonies. 

When the Stuarts recovered the throne, 1660, they re- 
newed the effort to establish English royal colonies, taking 
possession of New York, founding the Carolinas, and assist- 
ing the Quakers to develop Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and 
Delaware. Meantime the Catholics, annoyed and persecuted 
by the Puritan Commonwealth, had settled in Maryland. 

It was no accident of history that the English Colonies 
were established in the order and in the manner shown by 
the record. The first settlers in America were not Ameri- 
cans, but Europeans in America, and their minds were full 
of the Old World from which they had escaped. 

The advance in English philanthropy first shown by the 
Quaker settlement in Pennsylvania led to the settlement 
of Georgia. This new benevolence was the outcome of a 
religious awakening that would never have been possible 
but for the invention of print, which permitted the new 
ideas of humanitarianism to be scattered broadcast. 

American colonization was the flowering of European 
life in a better and happier soil. 



586 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



§ 8. The Dynastic Causes of European Wars. 

Only a few centuries before the discovery of America by 
Columbus the greater part of Western Europe had formed 
the empire of Charlemagne. But the Crusades, the Re- 
naissance, and the Reformation had broken up this empire 
and divided its parts into the nationalities of Europe. 

The discovery of America and of South Africa, and the 
re-discovery of Asia, by enriching Spain, and, to a less ex- 
tent, Portugal, England, and Holland, had encouraged this 
development of nationalities. War after war between 
nations attended their growth. The four wars in America 
from 1689 to 1763 were caused by the Old World strifes. 
The thrones of Europe became the prizes of the great 
families, called " Houses." These great families included 
the Stuarts of England, the Bourbons of France, the Haps- 
burgs of Austria, the Medicis of Italy, and the Hanovers 
of Germany. They had enormous private possessions, con- 
sisting of landed estates, commercial towns and cities, com- 
mercial and industrial franchises, such as the rights of 
banking and of the sea trade, and they had soldiers. Their 
rival ambitions caused constant strife. Aristocracy, not 
democracy, was the ruling principle in the world until the 
time of the American Revolution. 

§ 9. The Napoleonic "Wars and the Re-action. 

In opposition to the Bourbons of France arose the 
people themselves in the French Revolution. The collapse 
of the Revolution and the prostration of France gave 
Napoleon Bonaparte, the ablest adventurer in human 
history, his opportunity. He sought to spread the doc- 
trines of the Revolution, "liberty, equality, fraternity," 
throughout Europe by making himself the first man of the 



EUROPE AN ARMED CAMP. 587 



world. In this enterprise the armies of a single nation 
could not defeat the armies of all the other nations in 
alliance. In such reforms, ideas, not weapons, triumph. 
In the Napoleonic Wars Europe, Egypt, Syria, and all the 
Americas were embroiled. A period of comparative peace 
and of immense progress followed their ending. The peace 
was interrupted by popular agitations in England, France, 
Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Spain, especially in 1848, 
and blood was shed in civil strife upon the Continent to 
further the cause of political freedom for the masses. 

§ 10. Extreme Political Changes in France and Germany. 

A generation ago was fought the last great war in 
Europe, the Franco-Prussian, which ended in the over- 
throw of the French Empire and the establishment of a 
Republic, and in the organization of the German Empire 
with Prussia under its great family, the Hohenzollerns, as 
the leading State. The results of the latter political change 
we have felt here in scientific and educational ideas derived 
from Germany, and in millions of Germans emigrating to 
escape from compulsory military service. 

§ 11. The Oppression of European Military Systems. 

Of all the great nations of the world Great Britain and 
the United States only have voluntary military service. 
France, Germany, Russia, even Italy and Spain, all force 
their youth out of commerce, manufacture, and agriculture 
into the army for two or three years. Aristocracy still 
controls upon the continent of Europe, even in republican 
France. Its oppression is the cause of emigration to 
America, for in France, Austria, even England, is many a 
fertile field unplowed. Only democracy, wearing no war- 
front, can save Europe, at whose expense in a million 



588 THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 



emigrants a year we are growing. The story of Europe 
is the story of kings and nobles fighting each other, subdu- 
ing their peoples, exiling or imprisoning their brilliant men 
of books or of arms, and losing their freedom-loving, wealth- 
producing artisans and peasants. The story of America is 
the story of profit-making by receiving these enterprising 
people and turning them into still better men and women, 
the citizens of a free, rich, just, and peaceful country. 
Europe is to-day an armed camp, with half a billion soldiers 
ready for battle, and costing annually many billions of 
dollars to maintain. They do no work, yet must eat. The 
burden is indeed intolerable for the poor. 

§ 12. All Europe an Overflowing Reservoir for America. 

In the course of the centuries Russia, almost unthought 
of until the time of Peter the Great, has increased in mul- 
titude of her people and has stretched her domains from 
the Baltic to the Pacific. Norway and Sweden, under the 
rule of the dynasty founded by Napoleon's Marshal, Berna- 
dotte, and his American wife, have, by political union, 
become a great and progressive nation. From Northern 
and Eastern Europe have come millions of people to try 
their fortunes in the rich lands of a free country. Italy, 
already one people, became one nation, 1848-1861, and 
increasing too rapidly in population has begun to send hun- 
dreds of thousands annually to these shores. The people 
of Austria and Hungary, united after centuries of inter- 
necine war, have began to find their way hither. All Europe 
has become a reservoir overflowing across the Atlantic. 

Our modern inventions — railroad, steamship, telegraph, 
newspaper — have conspired to tell the people of Europe 
with emphasis all and more than the truth of the marvelous 



EUROPEAN HISTORY. 589 

opportunities here, and to bring them by thousands daily to 
our ports. We won European laborers to do our heaviest 
work for us, and we borrowed European capital to pay for 
the labor. America to-day is a younger Europe, with the 
promise of a better and larger manhood than the Old 
World ever knew. Whatever is done upon one side of the 
Atlantic is likely to concern the other. Steam and elec- 
tricity, and intelligence and sympathy, bring the nations 
to-day nearer in mind and heart than neighboring villages 
were in earlier times. 

Note. The purpose of this chapter is to suggest correlations between 
American and European history. This will arouse interest on the part 
of individuals and of the class. The subject is too large to be touched for 
any other purpose than for the illumination of American history. 

SUGGESTED REFERENCES. 

Labberton's Universal History. 

Fisher's Universal History. 

Myers's Mediaeval and Modem History. 

Bourne's Teaching of History and Civics. 

Colby's General History. 

Green's Short History of the English People. 

The brief accounts of national history — Italy, Spain, France, etc., etc. 

— in the standard encyclopedias. 
Bloch's The Future of War. 





IMPORTANT DATES. 


800. 


Charlemagne. 


1500. 


Columbus. 


1588. 


The Spanish Armada and Philip II. 


1650 


Cromwell. 


1700. 


Louis XIV. 


1800. 


Napoleon. 


1848. 


European Revolution . 


1875. 


Victoria. 



590 OUTLINE OF OUR HISTORY. 



REVIEW OF THE STORY AND OUTLOOK. 

§ 1. Growth in Three Centuries. 

The preceding pages of this History of the United States 
have presented the subject in various aspects. Many books 
together could not present all of the aspects of the story of 
the making of the nation as it is to-day. In but three 
centuries of colonization and growth the country of the Con- 
tinental United States has come to number eighty million 
people. In the last decades the rate of our growth has 
been at the average of twenty-five per cent from census to 
census. This rate is likely slowly to diminish ; but unless 
it changes greatly, the multitude of the people of the United 
States a half century hence will be two hundred million. 

§ 2. "Why England Won Our Country. 

In the first centuries of colonization, there was rivalry 
between Spain, France, England, and Holland. Of these 
nations, Spain was religious and military, with no class of 
enterprising workers among her people. France was dis- 
tinctly military, though in the middle of the seventeenth, 
century her policy in Canada was religious also. England 
was primarily agricultural and industrial, though religious 
and political dissension caused the emigration to the shores 
of Massachusetts Bay. Holland was almost exclusively 
commercial, and her population was small. 

In view of these national characteristics and conditions, 
it was inevitable that England should outstrip the other 
nations, for in every colony the fundamental activity must 
be economic, — to raise crops, to make cloth, to build houses. 
In these activities the English excelled. At the same time 
they made good soldiers in their conflicts with the Indians. 



THE OVERTHROW OF SPAIN". 591 



§ 3. The Decay of Spain. 

In the interests of her religion and of her national power, 
Spain aimed to establish a ruling colony at St. Augustine, 
Florida, after the fashion of Spanish rule in Mexico and 
Peru; but the field was barren, for the Indians of Florida 
were few in number and poor at that. Further, the domestic 
decline of Spain had already set in. In the excess of zeal 
for religion, Spain was discouraging all efforts of indi- 
vidual initiative. Yet we have within the present domains 
of the Continental United States a considerable number of 
citizens of Spanish descent. Fortunately for the nature 
of our political and social institutions, the southern stretch 
of our country from Atlantic to Pacific was not added until 
the dominance of the Anglo-Saxon spirit was secured. 

The last decade of the fifteenth century and the first 
three decades of the sixteenth century saw the climax of 
Spain's greatness. Her decline began with the establish- 
ment of the Inquisition, which deprived her not only of 
provinces in Europe, but also of many of her own best 
citizens, who perished as martyrs to their faith. By 1587 the 
people of the Netherlands, who for reasons both of religion 
and of commerce had resisted their Spanish rulers, were 
able to secure their partial independence. In 1588 Philip 
the Second, whose wife had been Mary, Queen of England 
was defeated in the attack of the Spanish Armada upon 
England, and the power of Spain came to an end upon the 
seas. In 1609 the last of the Moriscoes, the Christianized 
Moors, were driven out of Spain, which lost thereby the 
greater number of her skillful artisans and mechanics. 

Portugal, the little kingdom in the southwest corner of 
the Spanish peninsula, became in 1580, and remained for 



592 THE CAUSE OF THE EARLY IMMIGRATIONS. 



sixty years thereafter, a province of Spain. This mis- 
fortune prevented Portugal from becoming that great power 
in America, in Africa, and in Asia to which the efforts of 
Prince Henry the Navigator and his successors seemed to 
destine her. The Papal Bull of Alexander the Sixth, in 
1493, had separated the New World into two parts, the 
first to belong to Portugal and the other to Spain. The 
overthrow of the Armada and the cruelty of the Inquisi- 
tion prevented the effective realization of the Spanish 
hopes of New World and Old World supremacy in the cen- 
turies to come. 

§ 4. France and the New World. 

The century in Europe that began with the expulsion of 
the Moriscoes in Spain saw in France the continuation of 
those struggles between the Catholics and Huguenots which 
found their climaxes in the massacre of St. Bartholomew's 
Day, 1572, in the Edict of Nantes, 1598, and in the revoca- 
tion of the Edict, 1681. This internecine religious and 
social struggle, together with the ambition of the French 
monarchs to rule as despots in the Old and New Worlds, 
prevented the complete success of the French colonizing 
efforts in Canada and in the Mississippi valley. 

While Spain was sending zealots to these shores to be 
maintained at the cost of Church and State, France was per- 
mitting her religious dissenters to go. After the Spanish 
colonization ceased, these dissenting Huguenots continued to 
come in small companies to ports all along our Atlantic coast. 
The French did not come under State patronage to any 
region south of Canada, except Louisiana. The French 
political institutions were never imported to our country, 
but in Canada in the seventeenth century the French 



REVIEW OF OUR HISTORY. 593 



colonies were long maintained by the patronage of both 
Church and State. Many of the descendants of these French 
colonies migrated into -New England during the second half 
of the nineteenth century. With the Louisiana territory, 
1803, we secured at New Orleans and other settlements a 
considerable number of citizens of French blood. 

§ 5. America, the Refuge of the Oppressed. 

Holland sent to New Netherlands many enterprising 
colonists. The descendants of these, together with emi- 
grants from Germany, constitute to-day a considerable pro- 
portion of the population of our Middle Atlantic and 
North Central States. All of these people came here to 
escape the European wars and the unjust laws. 

The great wars of Europe in the seventeenth, eighteenth, 
and nineteenth centuries, which included the Thirty Years' 
War, Seven Years' War, Napoleonic Wars, the Crimean and 
Franco-Prussian Wars, together with such Civil Wars as that 
which made Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector of an English 
Republic in the middle of the seventeenth century, with the 
French Revolution which began in 1789, and with the 
French Commune of 1848, completely justified the familiar 
historical statement that the history of immigration in 
America is a history of the oppressions of Europe. 

§ 6. The English Spirit Controlled Our People. 

In 1776 the great majority of the people of the colonies 
were English ; and to-day, despite some twenty million im- 
migrants, of whom only a small proportion came from 
Great Britain, the dominant strain in the American charac- 
ter and in the American blood is English. 

This English spirit, more than anything else, accounts 



594 AMERICAN FREEDOM. 



for the supremacy of the American nation as one of the 
four great populations of the world, the others being in 
China, Russia, and Great Britain. The rest of the explana- 
tion consists in the nature of the Continental United States. 

§ 7. Our Unequaled Geographical Advantages. 

No other stretch of land on the earth equals our country 
in excellence and variety of climate, in fertility and variety 
of soil, and in the quantity and variety of resources, of 
minerals, of fields, and of forests, and in extent of seacoast 
and waterways. The only regions of earth comparable in 
extent to the United States are the two sections of Europe, 
Western and Eastern, Siberia, China, India, Australia, 
South Africa, South America, and Canada. But Europe 
is considerably farther to the North than the United States, 
and has no regions like our Southern States in climate. 
Russia has no seacoast port open the year through. Siberia 
is much colder than the United States. China has but 
one seacoast, and by no means the variety of climate of 
the United States. 

Nearly all of Australia is an arid desert. India already 
is over-populated, and is near the Equator. South Africa 
offers far less variety of climate than the United States. 
Canada is too far to the North. South America, and 
South America alone, is comparable with the United States 
in opportunity to support a new, great, progressive popula- 
tion ; but until the difficult problem of maintaining a vigor- 
ous white race in the tropics has been solved, the basins of 
the Amazon and of the Orinoco will not compete with our 
magnificent Mississippi basin. 

Coal used in winter fires has made possible the permanent 



REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 595 

great population in the temperate zones. Nothing equiva- 
lent to its protection against the cold is yet known to 
science as a protection against the torrid heat of tropical 
summers. 

China alone offers, in the temperate zone, a region of 
earth comparable in extent to the United States, and pos- 
sesses as great natural resources, but China is already 
densely populated. 

§ 8. Freedom in the United States. 

In the present conditions of science and of machinery, 
mankind may look to the United States alone as the field 
for the development of a great, free, enlightened, and 
righteous people. Fortunately for human history, the 
Pacific coast of the New World was not discovered and 
colonized by any Asiatic people. Fortunately European 
conditions made England the successful colonizing nation, 
and fortunately, also, the early English colonists came over 
here quite as numerously for the sake of displaying the 
independence of the English character in its effort to free 
itself from oppressive institutions of Church and State as 
for the sake of establishing here those great institutions 
in their English form and spirit. The first generation of 
every colony was dominated by the ideas of the mother 
country. In this new world the hardships and necessities 
of the new life compelled individual activity, broke up 
routine modes of thought and action, and caused men and 
society to adopt new and better views about social classes 
and social customs. 

To understand these great English ideas of public and 
private we must read Magna Charta, the Bill of Rights, and 
the Constitution of our own nation. 



596 REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 



§ 9. The Period of Settlement. 

From 1607 to 1700 all the great colonies were estab- 
lished, — Virginia, New York, Massachusetts, Maryland, 
and Pennsylvania. By the end of this period the important 
lines of colonial development were permanently fixed. 
Democracy in America had not come into being, but the 
seed had been sown in the independence and positiveness 
of religious and political thought of individuals. The early 
part of the eighteenth century was spent upon the difficul- 
ties of economic development, which included resistance to 
the Indians, the building of roads, and the art of agriculture 
in new climates and with new soils. By 1776, scarcely 
three generations after the settlement of Pennsylvania, the 
population of this country had reached nearly three million 
people, of whom two-thirds were English by birth or descent. 

History as yet affords no complete record of the number 
of emigrants to these shores from 1607 to 1776, but there 
was scarcely any colony in which from decade to decade 
the foreign-born and the children of the foreign-born did 
not outnumber those whose descent had been American for 
two generations. It is this which explains very largely the 
distinctly English character of all our colonial life. It 
explains also the reason why there were so many Loyalists 
in America during the Revolutionary War. 

§ 10. The Influence of the Early Wars was for Union. 

The vigorous spirits who worked for the independence of 
the colonies from Great Britain were chiefly the men who 
had taken part in the colonial wars, — French, Spanish, and 
Indian, — and their descendants. It is an interesting re- 
flection that if George the Third and Lord North had been 



THE EARLY WARS. 597 

statesmen understanding the English qualities in the " colo- 
nial Englishmen " across the sea, this region of the earth 
would have remained a permanent self-governing colony of 
the mother-country. Such a logical outcome would have 
completely changed the later history of Europe and of 
North America as well. It was the most important result 
of the colonial wars, and of the War of Independence, that 
the leading colonists were brought together in the armies. 
This mutual acquaintance formed the basis both of the 
Confederation and of the Constitution. Not those who had 
traveled widely in the colonies, but those who had stayed 
at home, resisted the adoption of the fundamental instru- 
ments of government that separated the New World from 
the Old. 

§ 11. Effects of the Napoleonic Wars. 

The independence of the United States saved our coun- 
try from becoming seriously embroiled in the great Napo- 
leonic Wars, which lasted from 1795 to 1815. These 
Wars, with their resultant conscriptions and general social 
oppressions, caused emigrants to come to this country from 
England, Germany, Holland, and France. And more emi- 
grants came hither in this period than in all the years that 
preceded. Emigration out of Europe has resulted quite as 
much from the hardships of European life as from the 
attractiveness of American opportunities. 

After settlements began in the last decade of the eigh- 
teenth century in this country beyond the Appalachian 
Mountains, the opportunities for poor men in this country 
became very great. The fertile valleys of the Ohio basin 
drew away many settlers from the thirteen original States, 
leaving larger opportunities of business and agriculture 



598 REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 



to those who remained in our established communities. 
Farms in the " Old North-West " cost almost nothing, — in 
many cases they cost actually nothing. The contrast of 
America with Western Europe in respect to land and to 
business was as great as that in respect to the legal and 
political rights of the individual. 

The statesmen who in 1803 secured the Louisiana terri- 
tory for the United States could not foresee all the results 
of their great enterprise. They could not have realized 
success in their effort to extend the domain of the United 
States, but for the pressure of Napoleon Bonaparte's ene- 
mies upon the great war-empire that he was endeavoring 
to establish and maintain. The same Napoleonic Wars 
which compelled Napoleon to release Louisiana to us, gave 
independence to all the Spanish provinces in South Amer- 
ica ; for in the first three decades of the nineteenth century 
Spanish South America and Spanish Central America, 
province by province, revolted from Spain. It was left for 
the last decade of the nineteenth century and to the United 
States to complete the separation of the Spanish dominions 
in America from the ruling country as the result of the 
Spanish- American War of 1898. 

§ 12. The Disappointing Quality of Recent Immigration. 

Recently there has been a marked change in the nation- 
alities and races of immigrants. In our first period we drew 
largely from England, somewhat from France, Holland, and 
Sweden. This period lasted until 1830. We then began 
to draw very largely upon Germany and Ireland, and drew 
more largely than before from Scandinavia. This period 
lasted until about 1880. Since then, while immigrants have 



THE STRUGGLE OF THE RACES. 599 



been steadily coming hither from all these countries, we have 
drawn also many millions from Italy, Australia, Hungary, 
and Russia. These peoples do not equal in intelligence and 
character the early immigrants from Western Europe, but 
they have proven industrious, and in themselves have not 
been as yet dangerous to American institutions except in 
one respect. Their lower standards of living have made 
native born Americans unwilling to associate with them in 
the daily contact of manual labor. These immigrants and 
their descendants furnished hundreds of thousands of sol- 
diers and sailors to the country of their adoption in all our 
wars. 

§ 13. The Settlement of Race Struggles. 

In the nineteenth century the United States was a field in 
which not only the Old World ideas came into conflict with 
each other as in the eighteenth century, but with them New 
World ideas also struggled. Catholic popes and Spanish 
kings forbade in the sixteenth century the further enslave- 
ment of the Indians, but the red man of the New World 
never was a profitable slave to any master. In the nine- 
teenth century the question whether the white man has a 
right to enslave the black man was fought out to a terrible 
but a final result. Then and there the question of the politi- 
cal equality of all men was determined — white, red, and 
black. In the same nineteenth century, the people of this coun- 
try determined to exclude from American society the yellow 
race as represented by the Chinese. This decision represents 
the settled policy of our nation, which, though it desires to 
trade with all peoples, has determined to be the refuge of the 
oppressed and of the miserable only when their presence does 
not endanger the integrity of our civilization and culture. 



600 REVIEW OF THE STORY. 



§ 14. Our Intellectual Relations -with Europe. 

In yet other ways the history of the United States reflects 
the history of Europe. The printing-press and the steam- - 
engine came to us as inventions of the Old World. Until 
the middle of the nineteenth century, we relied upon English 
books as the authoritative basis of our intellectual culture. 
In the fields of science and industry, our inventions in elec- 
tricity and our applications of old mechanical principles to 
new forms of machinery gave us the leadership of the world. 
In education we have adopted many of the ideas of England 
and Germany, but our free common school system is essen- 
tially original with us. Our religion is European in sub- 
stance and in form. 

§ 15. Our Progress in Ideas has been Toward Freedom. 

Beginning necessarily with the ideas of Europe, we have 
gradually grown out of and beyond them. We began with 
the idea that the master and the servant are on different 
levels of rights and duties : to-day all men are equal before 
the law. We began with the idea that to govern the many 
is the privilege of the few: to-day we practice the govern- 
ment of all in Town, County, State, and Nation by the will 
of all. We began with the idea that man is superior and 
woman inferior : to-day in nearly every respect of law and 
custom, public and private, men and women are equal. We 
began with the idea that Church and State must be one : 
to-day, even in the fact that churches pay no taxes to 
governments, Church and State are entirely distinct. We 
began with the idea that knowledge is for the few : to-day 
the School offers knowledge free to all. In the early days, 
there was aristocracy in religion, in government, in educa- 
tion, in the family : in these times, there is democracy in 



OUR POLITICAL PROGRESS. 601 

all. And the cause of our freedom and equality is the 
religious principle that all men are the sons of God, and 
therefore brothers. From this principle has grown the 
activity of our people in invention, in science, in commerce, 
and in ordinary industry ; for where opportunities are open 
and equal to all, there all are ambitious. In a land of great 
resources, our cheerful activity has made the nation rich 
beyond the dreams of our forefathers. 

§ 16. Our Political Progress has been Democratic. 

Since self-government began at Jamestown and Plymouth, 
until now, there has been a steady advance of our people in 
freedom through their interest in government and through 
their control of it. In the nineteenth century, the Electoral 
College, which was intended to be an aristocratic body to 
choose the best man President to rule the people, became, 
through the development of political parties and their nomi- 
nating conventions, a board that merely registers the people's 
will. This change was typical of many relating to public 
office. Through party platforms the people determine the 
policies of the State and National Governments. By the 
machinery of parties, we have handled the large questions of 
the tariff, of internal improvements, of the currency, of peace 
and war, so that Congress serves, not rules. In the words of 
Abraham Lincoln, we have here " a government of the 
people, for the people, and by the people." It is a govern- 
ment so good that it is somewhat better than the people are. 

§ 17. The Succession of Political Parties. 
The story of our national history began with a people 
decidedly Federalist. To this party there grew the opposi- 
tion of a Republican party, which overthrew Hamilton's 



602 REVIEW OF THE STORY. 



aristocratic Federalism to establish in power Jefferson's 
democratic Republicanism. Federalism not long afterwards 
itself disappeared, but its purpose was accomplished in the 
creation of a strong central government. Then the Repub- 
licans divided into National Republicans and Democratic 
Republicans, or Democrats. The National Republicans gave 
place to the Whigs. 

The principles of the Democracy triumphed in the policy 
of Jackson, who gave the offices of government to his fol- 
lowers among the common people. The Whigs believed 
in a protective tariff, in internal improvements, in a national 
bank, and in commercial rather than political management of 
government affairs. They broke in pieces upon the rock 
of the slavery question, and wanting a continuance of such 
leaders as Clay, the great maker of the slavery compro- 
mises, and Webster, the great expounder of the Constitu- 
tion, disappeared. 

Meantime other parties came forward : Free-S oilers, 
opposed to extension of slavery in the Territories ; " Know- 
nothings," opposed to the naturalization of foreigners; and 
finally Republicans, pledged to maintain the Union and 
inclined to destroy slavery. Through all these years jurists 
and statesmen contended with each other regarding the 
" strict " or " loose " construction of the Constitution, the 
sovereign rights of a State against centralization, Calhoun 
against Webster. Then the Democratic party split upon 
the rock of slavery. 

There followed in the period of the War of Secession 
and in the Reconstruction period, a long interval beginning 
with Abraham Lincoln in which the Republican party was 
supreme. It held to the Federalist and Whig policies of 



MODERN POLITICAL QUESTIONS. 603 



the past, and added liberal pensions to Union soldiers and 
to their widows. In this epoch of Republican supremacy, 
there appeared for a time the Greenback party, favoring 
paper-money instead of " money of redemption ; " that is, 
money to be redeemed in gold. Excessive tariffs protecting 
industries that no longer needed protection, heavy expendi- 
tures for government, and a general feeling that any 
change would be for the better, at length led to the restora- 
tion of the Democratic party under Grover Cleveland to 
temporary power. 

Greenbackism gave place to Populism with its principles 
of government ownership or control of many lines of 
business, and of the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 
" 16 to 1," that is, 16 ounces of silver to equal 1 ounce of 
gold. The Democracy under Bryan allied itself with Popu- 
lism. This joint-policy has not yet been successful in 
seeking control of our National Government, which is now 
Republican. The party in power favors a high protective 
tariff, a gold-basis for the currency, retention of our island 
possessions, civil service based on merit, liberal pensions, 
a great navy, and in general a strong central government. 

§ 18. Present Political Problems have not Become Issues. 
Upon some great issues now coming forward, the great 
parties, Republican and Democratic, have not yet declared 
themselves. Among these issues are government-ownership 
of railroads, telegraph-lines, and coal-mines, compulsory 
arbitration of all disputes between labor and capital, govern- 
ment-regulation of the affairs of corporations, and tax- 
reforms. These questions involve the fundamental problems 
of individualism and socialism. As rapidly as such ques- 






604: REVIEW AND OUTLOOK. 



tions are answered, they cease to be questions ; and the 
great parties are forced to new issues. 

Consequently since few to-day believe in Jackson's demo- 
cratic policy, " To the victors belong the spoils," both parties 
indorse, and when in office generally practice, a civil service 
conducted upon business principles ; and civil service re- 
form has ceased to be a political issue, because it has 
become an accomplished fact. Certain measures, such as 
woman suffrage and prohibition of the traffic in alcoholic 
drinks, have been before the public for a long time without 
an issue being raised by one great party's taking one view 
or another. Our new National policy of " imperialism," that 
is, the control of regions and peoples not in the process of 
becoming States, has been questioned without any issue 
being joined. 

The Administration of Roosevelt is in a transition epoch, 
like the earlier Administrations in which the Federalists, 
the Whigs, and the Democrats broke in pieces. 
§ 19. The American Future is Bright. 

The history of the United States is a demonstration of 
the power of the political institutions, embodied in the 
Constitution and Statutes of the United States and in the 
Constitution and Statutes of the various separate States, to 
develop the white race in culture, morality, and wealth. In 
authority our elected President is the equal of any monarch, 
of any ruler of the world. Despite the enormous burden of 
nearly nine million Negroes and of many millions as yet un- 
Americanized immigrants, such are the spirit, character, and 
energy of the nation as developed by these three great centu- 
ries of our history, that its future is bright with promise. 
A free press, a free pulpit, a free platform, a free school, a 






OUR WORLD-WIDE INFLUENCE. 605 



free ballot, and a free system of land-transfer have made the 
American people independent, ambitious, self-controlled. 

§ 20. Our International Position Brings Responsibilities. 

Our international position is secure. Our form of gov- 
ernment is regarded as ideal by the most intelligent peoples 
of the world. In peace, in war, and in diplomacy we have 
demonstrated our supremacy. By reason of our New 
World policy we are the protectors of two continents 
against Old World conquest. Our leadership in America 
is unquestioned. We are destined to expand south and 
north by annexation of other lands as States. The influ- 
ence of our model of government and of our private law is 
extending constantly. American democracy has established 
a republican empire of world-wide importance. 

§ 21. The Guarantees of Progress. 

We have become a nation of people living in villages, 
towns, and cities, rather than in the more healthful open 
country. We are commercial and industrial as well as 
agricultural. Many classes of our population are engaged 
in hazardous or unheal thful or demoralizing or miserable 
occupations. In our civilization we are reproducing too 
much of the evils and sorrows of the Old World. There is 
a constant struggle between the interests of capital and 
those of labor, in which all our people are vitally con- 
cerned. The hope of domestic peace and progress lies in 
the maintenance of individual liberty, in the diffusion of 
wealth, and in the extension of knowledge, that is, in just 
laws public and private, and in education. To all these 
great ideas of freedom, justice, fraternity, and equal oppor- 
tunity, the people of America are dedicated. 



606 FORTHLOOKING. 



§ 22. The Light of American Liberty. 

On the evening of October 11, 1192, an Italian sea- 
captain guiding Spanish ships upon an immortal voyage, saw 
in the dusk the nickering light of some Indian fisherman 
upon an unknown coast that he alone had seen by faith. 
The little light that Columbus saw presaged the great and 
steady light that has shone now for many years in our New 
York harbor, the white light in the torch of the Goddess of 
Liberty. That light has cheered the home-coming of many 
million American travelers, and has promised liberty to 
every stranger seeking this as the country of his adoption. 

The destiny of every nation is to seek to extend its power 
and influence farther and farther into the world as long as 
its own vitality lasts. The light of American liberty must 
shine abroad, because it shines at home. The better we 
make our Americanism, the nearer we bring it to the ideals 
of Franklin, Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, Emerson, and 
Lowell, the stronger and the farther American liberty will 
shine. Nothing less and nothing else than ideal Chris- 
tian Americanism is our need and the world's need. This 
ideal Americanism means to realize a condition of society 
in which men obey the command of Jesus, " Thou shalt 
love thy neighbor as thyself." Only in that happy social 
relation in which we do to others as we would that they 
should do to us, can we, as individuals or as a nation, find 
an abundant life. 

§ 23. The American Qualities. 

The desire of men since the beginning of history has been 
for freedom. Only truth can make men free. Religion 
and science teach us to " Prove all things : hold fast that 
which is good." Not only religion, but also common sense 



THE AMEBIC AN HERITAGE. 607 



commands men to " Be diligent in business : fervent in 
spirit." These are the American qualities : Mutual con- 
sideration : opportunity for all : equality before the law : 
love of liberty: will to learn the truths of Nature and of 
human nature : the courage to do and the fortitude to bear : 
the power of self-criticism : sympathy with the weak and 
desire to make them strong : freedom from all envy, with 
pride in the strong, the rich, the learned, as fellowmen of 
our own blood : reasonableness tempered by conservatism : 
diligence in all practical affairs : and hearty enthusiasm for 
the good. Whatever American life may manifest that does 
not accord with these qualities is to be deplored and to be 
removed from the pathway of our progress. 

§ 24. The Heritage of Opportunity and Responsibility. 
History records events that affect the social welfare for 
good or ill. We are now making history. To be an 
American, whether man or boy, woman or girl, is to live in 
the light of that ever-increasing liberty for which the Puri- 
tans first came to these shores, and for which the Patriots 
fought and bled on many a Revolutionary battlefield. For 
our liberty, for more than we yet have, for all that we seek 
to have, and for an abundant life, rich in material things, 
noble in spiritual ideas, have been spent the lives of mil- 
lions who have gone before us. They have left to us these 
treasures of literature, of art, of discovery and invention in 
science and in industry, of political, religious, economic, 
and cultural institutions, — treasures of buildings, books, 
machinery, roads, and treasures of ideas, ideals, aspirations, 
customs, laws. These are our inheritance as a free people. 
To hand down our heritage unimpaired in nature and in- 
creased in amount to those who are coming after us, and to 



608 FOETHLOOKING. 



extend its treasures generously to peoples not yet as free as 
ourselves but willing and able to receive thern, becomes our 
duty as loyal Americans. 

§ 25. The American People. 

" God hath made of one blood all nations of men." This 
is a truth of religion, of science, and of history. " God is 
no respecter of persons." This is the teaching of the Dec- 
laration of Independence, — " All men are created equal." 

The experiment of American democracy is an effort to 
realize, by institutions of public and private law, the equality 
of all, — of men, women, and children, of white, red, black, 
brown, and yellow men, of rich and poor, of learned and 
ignorant,--.- with opportunity equally open to all. "Within the 
boundaries of our Republic's vast empire from Porto Rico 
to Luzon are people to-day of every great race and of 
nearly every nation. " U pluribus unum,"* "from many one," 
means " of many States one Nation." But it may well 
mean also, " of many races one people." Such is the motto 
of the United States. Such is the meaning, not yet per- 
fectly realized, of the motto upon the great seal of the 
American Government, " Nova ordo saeclorum" a new order 
of the ages. 

Many of the boys and girls who read these pages will in 
later years read and study the history of other nations. All 
other history always must seem to us who know something 
of American history, less inspiring, less splendid than our 
own wonderful record of progress. It touches our pride to 
remember that we, too, are Americans. And it touches also 
our noblest ambitions to promote the progress of all in self- 
reliance, in industriousness, in wealth, in consideration for 
others, in intelligence, justice, righteousness, and freedom. 



APPENDICES. 



609 



APPENDIX I. 



FORMATION OF STATES. 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 

14. 
15. 
16. 

17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29- 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 



Delaware ratified the Const 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Georgia 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

South Carolina 

New Hampshire 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina 

Rhode Island 



tution 



Vermont admitted to the Union 

Kentucky " 

Tennessee " 

Ohio 

Louisiana 

Indiana "■ 

Mississippi " 

Illinois " 

Alabama ' ' 

Maine " 

Missouri " 

Arkansas ' ' 

Michigan ' ' 

Florida " 

Texas ' ' 

Iowa " 

Wisconsin 4i 

California " 

Minnesota ' ' 

Oregon ' ' 

Kansas " 

West Virginia ' l 

Nevada " 

Nebraska " 

Colorado ' ' 

North Dakota ' ' 

South Dakota " 

Montana " 

Washington " 

Idaho " 

Wyoming " 

Utah " 



Dec. 


7 


1787 


Dec. 


12 


1787 


Dec. 


18 


1787 


Jan. 


2 


1788 


Jan. 


9 


1788 


Feb. 


6 


1788 


Apr. 


2* 


1788 


May 


2-3 


1788 


June 


21 


1788 


June 25 


1788 


July 


20 


1788 


Nov. 


21 


1789 


May 


29 


1790 


Mar. 


4 


1791 


June 


1 


1792 


June 


1 


1796 


Nov. 


2!) 


1802 


Apr. 


80 


1812 


Dec. 


11 


1816 


Dec. 


10 


1817 


Dec. 


3, 


1818 


Dec. 


14 


1819 


Mar. 


15, 


1820 


Aug. 


10 


1821 


June 


15 


1836 


Jan. 


20 


1837 


Mar. 


3 


1845 


Dec. 


20 


1845 


Dec. 


28 


1846 


May 


20 


1848 


Sept. 


9 


1850 


Mav 


11 


1858 


Feb. 


14 


1859 


Jan. 


29 


1861 


June 19 


1863 


Oct. 


31 


1864 


Mar. 


1 


1867 


Aug. 


1 


1876 


Nov. 


3 


1889 


Nov. 


3 


1889 


Nov. 


8 


1889 


Nov. 


11 


1889 


July 


3 


1890 


July 


10 


1890 


Jan. 


4 


1896 



610 



APPENDICES. 



APPENDIX II. 

THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR PARTIES. 



Term in 
Office. 






Name. 


Party. 


1789-1797 .... George Washington . . 


. . None 


1797-1801 






. . John Adams .... 


. . Federalist 


1801-1809 






. . Thomas Jefferson . . . 


. . Republican 


1809-1817 






. . James Madison 


. . Republican 


1817-1825 






. . James Monroe .... 


. . Republican 


1825-1829 






. . John Quincy Adams . . 


. . None 


1829-1837 






. . Andrew Jackson . . . 


. . Democratic 


1837-1841 






. . Martin Van Buren . . 


. . . Democratic 


1841- 






. . William Henry Harrison 


. . Whig 


1841-1845 






. . John Tyler 


. . Democratic 


1845-1849 






. . James Knox Polk . . . 


. . Democratic 


1849-1850 






. Zachary Taylor . . . 


. . Whig 


1850-1853 






. . Millard Fillmore . . . 


: . Whig 


1853-1857 






. Franklin Pierce . . . 


. . Democratic 


1857-1861 






. James Buchanan . . . 


. . Democratic 


1861-1865 






. Abraham Lincoln . . . 


. . Republican 


1865-1869 






. Andrew Johnson . . . 


. . War Democratic 


1869-1877 






. Ulysses Simpson Grant . 


Republican 


1877-1881 






Rutherford Birchard Hayes 


. Republican 


1881- 






. James Abram Garfield . 


. . Republican 


1881-1885 






. Chester Alan Arthur . 


Republican 


1885-1889 






Grover Cleveland . 


. . Democratic 


1889-1893 . 






. Benjamin Harrison 


. . Republican 


1893-1897 . 






. Grover Cleveland . . . 


. . Democratic 


1897-1901 . 






. William McKinley . . 


. . Republican 


1901- 






. Theodore Roosevelt . . 


. . Republican 






APPENDICES. 



611 



APPENDIX III. 



EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. 



England. 

Henry VII, 1485-1509 

Henry VIII, 1509-1547 
Edward VI, 1547-1558 
Mary, 1553-1558 
Elizabeth, 1558-1603 
James I, 1603-1625 
Charles I, 1625-1649 
Cromwell and the Common- 
wealth, 1649-1660 
Charles II, 1660-1685 
James II, 1685-1688 
The English Revolution 
William III, 1689-1702 
and Mary, 1689-1694 
Anne, 1702-1714 
George I, 1714-1727 
George II, 1727-1760 

L George III, 1760-1820 

George IV, 1820-1830 
William IV, 1830-1837 
Victoria, 1837-1901 
Edward VII, 1901- 



The Continent. 

Age of Ferdinand V, 1466-1516, and 

Isabella, 1474-1504, of Spain. 

1 

j Age of Charles I(V), 1516-1555, and 

Philip II, 1555-1598, of Spain and 

the Holy Roman Empire. 



Age of Louis IV, the Grand Monarch 
of France, 1643-1715. 



Age of Napoleon I of France, 
1815. 



Age of Victoria. 



1799- 



612 



APPENDICES. 



APPENDIX IV. 

IMMIGRA TION S TA TIS TICS. 

Until 1830 the records of the United States census bureau with regard 
to immigration are very incomplete. From that time we have the follow- 
ing facts : 





Population. 


Number of 
Immigrants. 


Per Cent 
of Immi- 
grants to 
Population. 


Per Cent of 

Growth of 

Population. 


1800 


5,308,500 






30 


1810 


7,240,000 


. 


. . . 


27 


1820 


9,634,000 






25 


1830 


12,866,000 


143,500 


.01 


25 


1840 


17,069,000 


599,000 


.03 


25 


1850 


23,192,000 


1,713,000 


.07 


27 


1860 


31,443,000 


2,598,000 


.08 


31 


1870 


38,558.000 


2,315,000 


.06 


19 


1880 


50,156,000 


2,812,000 


.06 


22 


1890 


62,622,000 


5,246,000 


.08 


20 


1900 


76,303,000 


3,687,000 


.05 


20 



Immigration by Decades. 
Round Numbers. 





1820- 


1831- 


1841- 


1851- 


1861- 


1871- 


1881- 


1891- 




1830 


1840 


1850 


1860 


1870 


1880 


1890 


1900 


Ireland . . . 


50,000 


210,000 


780,000 


915,000 


435,000 


435,000 


655,000 


400,000 


Great Britain 1 


30,000 


90,000 


310,000 


485,000 


860,000 


930,000 


1,300,000 


1,100,000 


Germany . . 


7,000 


150,000 


435,000 


950,000 


790,000 


720,000 


1,450,000 


560,000 


Scandinavia . 


1,000 


2,000 


15,000 


25,000 


125,000 


245,000 


655,000 


400,000 












9,000 


75,000 
55,000 


355,000 
310,000 


450,000 


Italy .... 


400 


2,000 


2,000 


9,000 


12,000 


550,000 


France . . . 


8,500 


45,000 


75,000 


75,0C0 


36,000 


75,000 


60,000 


40,000 


Russia . . . 


100 


1,000 


1,000 


2,000 


5,000 


50,000 


265,000 


500,000 


Switzerland . 


3,000 


5,000 


5.000 


25,000 


25,000 


30,000 


80,000 


40,000 


Netherlands . 


1,000 


1,500 


8,000 


11,000 


9,000 


17,000 


55,000 


35,000 


China .... 


2 


8 


35 


40,000 


65,000 


125,000 


60,000 


22,000 


All others 2 . . 


45,000 


90,000 


80,000 


60,000 


50,000 


60,000 


110,000 


350,000 



The number of immigrants in 1901-1903 was equal to the number for 
the decade ending 1880. 

Trace the growth or reduction in numbers from the same country 
throughout the period. 

1 Including Canada. 

2 Including Turkey, Spain, Sfouth America, China, Africa, 



APPENDICES. 613 



APPENDIX V. 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 1 
In the Congress, July 4, 177(5. 

THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and 
equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle 
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, 
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, 
that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That 
to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving 
their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any 
Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of 
the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, lay- 
ing its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such 
form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happi- 
ness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established 
should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all 
experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while 
evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to 
which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpa- 
tions, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them 
under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off 
such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — 
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies ; and such is now 
the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Gov- 

1 The original copy of the Declaration of Independence, as signed at Philadelphia, 
is kept at the Department of State, Washington, the National Capital. The win ting 
is faded, and some of the signatures have almost disappeared. 

The arrangement of paragraphs, the punctuation, and the capitalization here 
follow the copy in the Journals of Congress, printed hy John Dunlap, which agrees 
with Jefferson's original draft. No names of States appear in the original, though 
the names from each State are together, except that the signature of Matthew 
Thornton, New Hampshire, follows that of Oliver Wolcott, Massachusetts. 



614 APPENDICES. 



ernment. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of 
repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establish- 
ment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Tacts 
be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing- 
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be ob- 
tained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large dis- 
tricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Represen- 
tation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to 
tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort- 
able, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole 
purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with 
manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others 
to be elected ; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, 
have returned to the People at large for their exercise ; the State remain- 
ing in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, 
and convulsions within. 

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for that 
purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners ; refusing 
to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the condi- 
tions of new Appropriations of Lands. 

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent 
to Laws for' establishing Judiciary Powers. 

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of 
Officers to harrass our People, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the 
Consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to 
the Civil Power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to 
our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his Assent to 
their Acts of pretended Legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 



APPENDICES. 615 



For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Mur- 
ders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States : 

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our Consent : 

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury : 

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences : 
. For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Prov- 
ince, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its 
Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for 
introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies : 

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and 
altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments : 

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protec- 
tion and waging War against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to 
compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with 
circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most bar- 
barous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas 
to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their 
friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured 
to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, 
whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all 
ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in 
the most humble terms : Our repeated Petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every 
act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. 

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We 
have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them 
of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured 
them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, 
which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We 



616 



APPENDICES. 



must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separa- 
tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in 
Peace Friends. 

We, therefore, the Kepresentatives of the united States of America, in 
General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Author- 
ity of the good People of these Colonies, soleinnly publish and declare, 
That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Inde- 
pendent States ; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British 
Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of 
Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved ; and that as Free and 
Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, 
contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and 
Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support 
of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Prov- 
idence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our 
sacred Honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
josiah bartlett, 
Wm. Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 
Saml. Adams, 
John Adams, 
Bobt. Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry. 

RHODE ISLAND. 
Step. Hopkins, 
William Ellerv. 

CONNECTICUT. 
Boger Sherman, 
Sam'el Huntington, 
Wm. Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 

NEW YOBK. 
Wm. Floyd, 
Phil. Livingston, 
Frans. Lewis, 
Lewis Morris, 



NEW JERSEY. 
Bichd. Stockton, 

JNO. WlTHERSPOON, 

Fras. Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abra. Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Bobt. Morris, 
Benjamin Bush, 
Benja. Franklin, 
John Morton, 
Geo Clymer, 
Jas. Smith, 
Geo. Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
Geo. Ross. 

DELAWARE. 
Cesar Rodney, 
Geo. Read, 
Tho. M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 
Samuel Chase, 
Wm. Paca, 



Thos. Stone, 
Charles Carroll of 
Carrollton. 

VIRGINIA. 
George Wythe. 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Th. Jefferson, 
Benja. Harrison, 
Thos. Nelson, jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

NOBTH CABOLINA. 
Wm. Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 
Edward Rutledge, 
Thos. Heyward, Junr., 
Thomas Lynch, Junr., 
Arthur Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 
Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
Geo. Walton. 



APPENDICES. 617 



APPENDIX VI. 

[THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
OF AMERICA.] 

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect 
Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the 
common defence, promote the general "Welfare, and secure the Bless- 
ings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish 
this Const it ution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE. I. 

Section-. 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

Section. 2. [1] The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, 
and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for 
Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

[2] No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained 
to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that 
State in which he shall be chosen. 

[3] Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several States which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective Numbers, 1 [which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a 
Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other 
Persons]. 2 The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years 
after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by 
Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for 
every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Represen- 
tative ; [and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New 
Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode- 
Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, 

1 The apportionment of Representatives under the census of 1900 is one represen- 
tative to every 193,291. 

2 The clause in brackets has been displaced by the Thirteenth and Fourteenth. 
Amendments. 



618 APPENDICES. 



New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Vir- 
ginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.] 

[4] When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the 
Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Va- 
cancies. 

[5] The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker 1 and other 
Officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

Section. 3. [1] The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

[2] Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the 
first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at 
the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration 
of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth 
Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacan- 
cies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the 
Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary 
Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then 
fill such Vacancies. 

[3] No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which 
he shall be chosen. 

[4] The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

[5] The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President 
pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exer- 
cise the Office of President of the United States. 

[6] The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. 
When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall 
preside : And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of 
two thirds of the Members present. 

[7] Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office 
of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party con- 
victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judg- 
ment and Punishment, according to Law. 

i The Speaker is always one of the Representatives ; the other Officers are not. 



APPENDICES. 619 



Section. 4. [1] The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections 
for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the 
Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or 
alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. 

[2] The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such 
Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
Law appoint a different Day. 

Section. 5. [1] Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, 
Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each 
shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number may 
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance 
of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each 
House may provide. 

[2] Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish 
its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two 
thirds, expel a Member. 

[3] Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time 
to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment 
require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House 
on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be en- 
tered on the Journal. 

[4] Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the 
Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section. 6. [1] The Senators and Representatives shall receive a 
Compensation 1 for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out 
of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except 
Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest dur- 
ing their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and hi 
going to and returning from the same ; and for any Speech or Debate in 
either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 

[2] No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the 
United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereot 
shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person holding any 
Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during 
his Continuance in Office. 

1 At present (1903) this is " SSOOOper annum, with S125 annual allowance for sta- 
tionery and newspapei-s, and a mileage allowance of twenty cents per mile of travel 
each way from their homes at each annual session." 



620 APPENDICES. 



Section. 7. [1] All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
Amendments as on other Bills. 

[2] Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a Law, be presented to the Presi- 
dent of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he 
shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and 
proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that 
House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the 
Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered. 
and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But 
in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas 
and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill 
shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill 
shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) 
after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like 
Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment 
prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. 

[3] Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- 
tion of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United 
States ; and before the same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, 
or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limita- 
tions prescribed in the Case of a Bill. 

Section. 8. [1] The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect 
Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the 
common Defence and general AVelf are of the United States ; but all Duties. 
Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 

[2] To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; 

[3] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian Tribes ; 

[4] To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws 
on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

[5] To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, 
and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; 

[6] To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and 
current Coin of the United States ; 

[7] To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; 






APPENDICES. 621 



[8] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing 
for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their 
respective Writings and Discoveries ; 

[9] To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; 

[10] To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high 
Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ; 

[11] To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make 
Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; 

[12] To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to 
that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; 

[13] To provide and maintain a Navy ; 

[14] To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land 
and naval Forces ; 

[15] To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the 
Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ; 

[16] To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, 
and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of 
the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of 
the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the 
discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

[17] To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over 
such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of 
particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the 
Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all 
Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which 
the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock- 
Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And 

[18] To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- 
ing into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by 
this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any 
Department or Officer thereof. 

Section. 9. [1] [The Migration or Importation of such Persons as 
any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be 
prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each Person.] 1 

[2] The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety 
may require it. 

1 A temporary clause no longer in force. 



622 APPENDICES. 



[3] No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 

[4] No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Propor- 
tion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

[5] No Tax or Duty shall be laid' on Articles exported from any State. 

[6] No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or 
Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall Vessels 
bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in 
another. 

[7] No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence 
of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account 
of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published 
from time to time. 

[8] No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no 
Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the 
Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or 
Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. 1 

Section. 10. [1] No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or 
Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit 
Bills of Credit ; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in 
Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law 
impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. 

[2] No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any 
Imposts of Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely 
necessary for executing it's inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all 
Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for 
the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be 
subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. 

[3] No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of 
Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any 
Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or 
engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as 
will not admit of delay. 2 

ARTICLE. II. 

Section. 1. [1] The executive Power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term 
of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same 
Term, be elected, as follows 

1 The personal rights enumerated in Section 9, have been increased, and extended 
by, Amendments I.-X. 

2 The provisions of Section 10 have been modified and extended by Amendments 
XIIL-XV. 



APPENDICES. 623 



[2] Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators 
and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : 
but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or 
Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. 

[3] [The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of 
the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the 
Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each y which List they 
shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government 
of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The Presi- 
dent of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Rep- 
resentatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. 
The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if 
such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; 
and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal 
Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately 
cbuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Ma- 
jority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like 
Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes 
shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one 
Vote ; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members 
from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be 
necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, 
the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be 
the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have 
equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice Presi- 
dent.] 1 

[4] The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and 
the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

[5] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to 
the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office 
who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been four- 
teen Years a Resident within the United States. 

[6] In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his 
Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the 
said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress 

* This clause has been displaced by the Twelfth Amendment. 



624 APPENDICES. 



may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Ina- 
bility, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer 
shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until 
the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

[7] The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, 
a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during 
the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

[8] Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the 
following Oath or Affirmation : — lt I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and 
will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitu- 
tion of the United States. 1 ' 

Section. 2. [1] The President shall be Commander in Chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he may 
require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the 
executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their 
respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons 
for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. 

[2] He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the 
Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present 
concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent 
of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- 
suls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United 
States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 
which shall be established by law : but the Congress may by Law vest the 
Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the Presi- 
dent alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 

[3] The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may 
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which 
shall expire at the End of their next Session. 

Section. 3. [1] He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- 
mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration 
such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on 
extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in 
Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Ad- 
journment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper ; 
he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers ; he shall take 



APPENDICES. 625 



Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the 
Officers of the United States. 

Section. 4. [1J The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and 
Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors 

ARTICLE. III. 

Section. 1. [1] The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested 
in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme 
and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and 
shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in Office. 

Section. 2. [1] The judicial Power shall extend to all cases, in Law 
and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United 
States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority ; 

— to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; 

— to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; — to Controversies 
to which the United States shall be a Party ; — to Controversies between 
two or more States ; '■ — between a State and Citizens of another State ; 1 
between Citizens of different States, — between Citizens of the same State 
claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or 
the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. 

[2] In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and 
Consuls, and those in which a State shall be. Party, the supreme Court 
shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, 
the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and 
Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

[3] The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by 
Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall 
have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the Trial 
shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. 

Section. 3. [1] Treason against the United States, shall consist only in 
levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them 
Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the 
Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in 
open Court. 

[2] The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Trea- 
son, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or 
Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. 
1 Modified by the Eleventh Amendment. 



626 APPENDICES. 



ARTICLE. IV. 

Section. 1. [1] Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to 
the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. 
And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which 
such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. 

Section. 2. [1] The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privi- 
leges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 1 

[2] A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, 
who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand 
of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, 
to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. 

[3] [No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regu- 
lation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be 
delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may 
be due.] 2 

Section. 3. [1] New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdic- 
tion of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two 
or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures 
of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

[2] The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful 
Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging 
to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed 
as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 

Section. 4. [1] The United States shall guarantee to every State in 
this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of 
them against Invasion ; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the 
Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic 
Violence. 

ARTICLE. V. 

[1] The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall 
be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by 
Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of 
Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that [no Amend- 

1 Extended by the Fourteenth Amendment. 
8 Displaced by the Thirteenth Amendment. 



APPENDICES. 627 



ment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred 
and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the 
Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that] i no State, without its Con- 
sent, shall be deprived of it's equal Suffrage in the Senate. 

AKTICLE. VI. 

[1] All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the 
Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

[2] This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall 
be made in Pursuance thereof ; and all Treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law 
of the Laud ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any 
Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwith- 
standing. 

[3] The Senators and Eepresentatives before mentioned, and the Mem- 
bers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, 
both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by 
Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious Test 
shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust 
under the United States. 

ARTICLE. VII. 

[1] The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient 

for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying 

the Same. 

The Word, " the", being 
interlined between the 

seventh and eighth Lines Doxe in Convention by the Unanimous Consent 
of the first Page, The Word 

"Thirty" being partly of the states present the Seventeenth Day of 
written on an Erazure in r J 

the fifteenth Line of the d _i 'i. ■ n. ir .c r i -i. V 

first Page, The Words " is September m the 1 ear of our Lord one thousand 
tried" being interlined 

between the thirty second seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the 
and thirty third Lines of 

the first Page and the Word Independance of the United States of America 
" the " being interlined be- L 

ibm- 1 fourth Siefof "the the Twelfth Iii Witness whereof We have 

second Page. 

[Note by Printer.— hereunto subscribed our Names, 
The interlined and re- 
written words, mentioned 
in the above explanation, 
are in this edition, printed 
in their proper places in 
the text.] and deputy from Virginia 



Go: WASHINGTON — Presidt. 



Attest William Jackson Secretary 

1 Temporary in its nature. 



628 



APPENDICES. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
John Lang don 
Nicholas Gilman 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Nathaniel Gorham 
Rufus King 

CONNECTICUT. 
Wji : Saml. Johnson 
Roger Sherman 

NEW YORK. 
Alexander Hamilton 

NEW JERSEY. 
Wil : Livingston 
David Brearley. 
Wm, Paterson. 
Jona : Dayton 

PENNSYLVANIA. 
B Franklin 
Thomas Mifflin 
Robt. Morris 
Geo. Clymer 
Thos. Eitz Simons 
Jared Ingersoll 
James Wilson 
Gouv Morris 



DELAWARE. 
Geo : Bead 
Gunning Bedford jun 
John Dickinson 
Richard Bassett 
Jaco : Broom 

MARYLAND. 
James Mc Henry 
Dan of St Thos. Jenifer 
Danl Carroll 

VIRGINIA. 
John Blair — 
James Madison Jr. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 
Wm : Blount 
Richd. Dobbs Spaight. 
Hu Williamson 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 
j. rutledge 

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 
Charles Pinckney 
Pierce Butler. 

GEORGIA. 
William Few 
Abr Baldwin 



ARTICLES 

in Addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States 
of America, proposed by Congress and ratified by the Legislatures of 
the Several States, pursuant to the Fifth Article of the Constitution. 

[ARTICLE I.] 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, 
or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 



APPENDICES. 629 



[AETICLE II.] 
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, 
the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. 

[ARTICLE III.] 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without 
the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- 
scribed by law. 

[ARTICLE IV.] 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- 
lated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by 
Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, 
and the persons or things to be seized. 

[ARTICLE V.] 
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in 
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual 
service in time of War or public clanger ; nor shall any person be subject 
for the same offence to be twice pat in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall 
be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be 
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor 
shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

[ARTICLE VI.] 
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy 
and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the 
crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously 
ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accu- 
sation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compul- 
sory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assist- 
ance of Counsel for his defence. 

[ARTICLE VII.] 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United 
States, than according to the rules of the common law. 



630 APPENDICES. 



[AETICLE VIII.] 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

[ARTICLE IX.] 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be cou- 
strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

[ARTICLE X.] i 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor 
prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to 
the people. 

[ARTICLE XL] 2 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of 
any Foreign State. 

[ARTICLE XII.] 3 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for 
President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhab- 
itant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots 
the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for 
as Vice President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for 
as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the 
number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and 
transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed 
to the President of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in 
presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certifi- 
cates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the 
greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no 
person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest num- 
bers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the 
House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. 
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by .states, the 

1 Amendments I.-X. were proclaimed to be in force December 15, 1791. 

2 Proclaimed to be in force January 8, 1798. 

3 Proclaimed to be in force September 25, 1804. 



APPENDICES. 631 



representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose 
shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a 
majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House 
of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of 
choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next 
following, then the Vice President shall act as President, as in the case of 
the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person 
having the greatest number of votes as Vice President, shall be the Vice 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors 
appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest 
numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice President ; a quorum 
for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, 
and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But 
no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice President of the United States. 

[ARTICLE XIII.] i 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- 
ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

[ARTICLE XIV.] * 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of 
the State wherein -they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction 
the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of 
"persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice 
President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Execu- 
tive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature 
thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being 

1 Proclaimed to be in force December 18, 1865. 

2 Proclaimed to be in force July 28, 1868. 



632 



APPENDICES. 



twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way 
abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of 
representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the num- 
ber of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- 
gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil 
or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having 
previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the 
United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive 
or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United 
States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or 
given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote 
of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be 
questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or 
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States, or any claim for the loss of emancipation of any 
slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and 
void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

[ARTICLE XV.] i 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not 
be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of 
race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

Note — Those parts of the document in brackets [] are not in the original, or 
have been modified or displaced by Amendments, or were temporary in their char- 
acter. Spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphing follow the original 
copy in the Department of State, Washington. 

1 Proclaimed to be in force March 30, 1870. 



APPENDICES. 633 



APPENDIX VII. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SCHOOL LIBKABIES. 
Source Materials. 

1. Hart's American History Told by Contemporaries is the best collection 

of source materials as yet made easily available. It is invaluable 
to the teacher and interesting to pupils. (4 vols. Cost about $10.00. 
Macmillan, N.Y.) 

2. Old South Leaflets. (Old South, Boston ; also Heath, Boston.) 

3. Channing and Hart's American History Leaflets. (Lovell, N.Y.) 

4. Caldwell's American History. (Ainsworth, Chicago.) 

5. Messages and Papers of the Presidents. (10 vols. U. S. Government, 

Washington.) Many second-hand copies are in the market. 

6. Hart's Source Book. (Macmillan, N.Y.) 

7. Hart's Source Readers in American History. (4 vols. Illustrated. 

Low-priced. Macmillan, N.Y.) Juvenile and interesting. 

8. American Historical Quarterly. (Published by American Historical 

Association. Also Macmillan, N.Y.) Back vols, bound are 
valuable both for source materials and book reviews. 

9. Ma cDon aid's Select Charters and Statutes of American History. (3 

vols. Macmillan, N.Y.) Invaluable. 

10. Hill's Liberty Documents. (Longmans, Green, N.Y.) 

11. Preston's Illustrative Documents. (Putnams, N.Y.) 

12. Johnston's Representative American Orations. (3 vols. Putnams, 

N.Y.) 

Standard Texts. 

13. Hart's Epochs of American History. (3 vols. Low-priced. Longmans, 

Green, N.Y.) I. Thwaites's Colonies, 1492-1750: II. Hart's For- 
mation of the Union, 1750-1829 : III. Wilson's Division and 
Re-union, 1829-1880. Excellent bibliographies. The best brief 
presentation yet made of American history. 

14. Channing' s Students' 1 History of the U. S. (Macmillan, N.Y.) Very 

thorough, except that wars are scarcely treated at all. 

15. McLaughlin's History of the American Nation. (Appleton, N.Y.) 

Admirable presentation of the philosophy of American history. 

16. Adams and Trent's History of the U. S. (Allyn & Bacon, Boston.) 

Non-partisan. Well illustrated. 



634 APPENDICES. 



Single-volume Accounts. 

17. Thorpe' s History of the American People. (McClurg, Chicago.) The 

best single volume of comment upon our history. 

18. Goldwin Smith's The U. S. : A Political History. (Macmillan, N.Y.) 

An Englishman's view ; broad, sharp, brief, philosophical. 

19. Johnston's American Politics. (Holt, N.Y.) Famous. 

20. Conklin's American Political History. (Holt, N.Y.) A woman's 

view. 

The Standard Histories. 

21. Bancroft's History of the JJ. S., 1492-1789. (6 vols. Appleton, N.Y.) 

A grand work, now old. A model of the old historical style. Not 
now considered perfectly reliable. 

22. Hildreth's History of the U.S., 1492-1830. (6 vols. Harpers, N.Y.) 

23. Schouler's History of the U. S., 1783-1865. (6 vols. Dodd, Mead, 

N.Y.) Brilliant. Eacts gathered with great care. Partisan in 
tone. 

24. McMaster's History of the American People, 1784-1880. (5 vols. 

completed. Appleton, N.Y.) Broad treatment based upon careful 
historical investigation. 

25. Rhodes 1 s History of the U. S. from the Compromise of 1850. 

4 vols. (Macmillan, N.Y. In course of publication. ) Admirable. 

26. Andrews's Modern History of the U. S. (Scribners, N.Y.) 

27. Von Hoist's Constitutional and Political History of the U. S. (7 vols. 

Callaghan, Chicago.). 

28. Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America. (8 vols. 

H,oughton, Mifflin, Boston.) Covers the history of both continents 
to 1850. Very little material on U. S. after 1776. 

The Popular Histories. 

29. Wilson's H istory of the U. S. (5 vols. Harpers, N.Y. Perhaps over- 

illustrated.) 

30. Bryant and Gay's History of the JJ. S. (1 vols. Scribners, N.Y.) 

Though old, still valuable. 

31. Others are Lossing's Our Country, Kidpath's History of the JJ. S., 

and Ellis's History of the U. S. 

Special Books of Note. 

32. Semple's American History and its Geographic Conditions. (Houghton, 

Mifflin, Boston.) Thorough and excellent. 

33. BrighanVs Geographical Influences in American History. (Chautauqua 

Press : also Ginn, Boston.) Briefer than the above. 



APPENDICES. 635 



34. Fiske's The Discovery of America. (Houghton, Mifflin, Boston.) 

Beginnings of New England. 

The Critical Period of American History, 1783-1789. 

Butch and Quaker Colonies. 2 vols. 

Old Virginia and her Neighbors. 

The American Bevolution. 2 vols. 

The Mississippi Valley in the Civil War. 

New France and New England. 

All are admirable, except the last, not entirely completed before 
his untimely death. Second to Parkman only in historical narra- 
tive, Fiske is first among Americans in historical philosophy. 

35. Sparks' s Expansion of the American People. (Scott, Foresman, Chi- 

cago.) Brilliant and interesting. Attractively illustrated. 

36. Eggleston's Beginners of a Nation. (Appleton, N.Y.) 

Transit of Civilization, 1600-1700. 

Very remarkable books. The first two volumes of a projected 
series of four to treat our history from a new point of view, the 
origin and development of American culture. 

37. Doyle's The English in America. (3 vols. Longmans, Green, N.Y. ; 

also Holt, N.Y.) 

38. Lodge's Revolutionary War. (Illustrated. Scribners, N.Y.) 

A singularly interesting yet too patriotic military account. Some- 
what unfair to the mother-country. 

39. Fisher's True History of the Revolution. (Lippincott, Philadelphia.) 

An attempt to present both sides of the controversy. 

40. Trevelyan's The American Bevolution. 3 vols. (Longmans, Green, 

N.Y.) 

41. Dodge's Bird's-eye View of the Civil War. (Houghton, Mifflin, Bos- 

ton.) 
The best brief account. Not perfectly reliable. 

42. Lee's True History of the Civil War. (Lippincott, Philadelphia) 

43. Parkman 's M< ontcalm and Wolfe. (Little, Brown, Boston.) 

Conspiracy of Pontiac. 

Old Regime in Canada, etc., etc. 

Parkman loved the truth and searched for it, saw with clear eyes 
and far, and wrote a perfect style : our greatest historian : prose- 
poet of the epic of " New France." 

44. Edgar's Parkman's Struggle for a Continent. ( Little, Brown, Boston.) 

Edited selections from Parkman's sixteen volumes. 

45. Koosevelt' s Winning of the West. (4 vols. Scribners, N.Y.) His best 

historical work. In most respects excellent. 



636 APPENDICES. 



46. Earle's Home Life in Colonial Days. (Macmillan, N.Y.) One of 

several fine books by an authority upon colonial life. Her other 
publishers are : Stone, Chicago ; Scribners, N.Y. ; Houghton, 
Mifflin, Boston. 

47. Tucker's History of the JJ. S. Before 1856. (4 vols. Lippincott, 

Philadelphia.) From the Southern point of view, yet not 
offensively partisan. 
43. Stan wood's History of Presidential Elections. (Houghton, Mifflin, 
Boston.) 

49. Stan wood's Tariff Controversies in the Nineteenth Century. (2 vols. 

Same.) 

50. Smith's Political History of Slavery. (2 vols. Putnams, N.Y.) 

51. Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. (t vols. Century Co., N.Y.) 

52. Campaigns of the Civil War. (13 vols. Scribners, N.Y.) 

53. Nicolay and Hay's Abraham Lincoln: A History. (10 vols. Century 

Co., N.Y.) 

54. Grant's M emoirs. (2 vols. Webster, N.Y.) 

55. Lodge's, Hamilton's, Madison's and Jay's The Federalist : A Commen- 

tary on The Constitution of the U. S. (Putnams, N.Y.) 

56. Lossing's Pictorial Field-book of the War of 1812. (Harpers, N.Y.) 

57. Mansfield's The Mexican War. (Barnes, N.Y.) 

58. Winsor's Reader's Handbook of the American Revolution, 1761-1783. 

(Houghton, Mifflin, Boston.) 

59. Knox's Travels of Marco Polo. (Putnams, N.Y.) 

60. Yule's Marco Polo. (Scribners, N.Y.) 

61. Spears's History of the Mississippi Valley. (Clark, N.Y.) Very 

interesting. Good especially for discussions of Indians. 

62. Hosmer's Short History of the Mississippi Valley. (Houghton, Mifflin, 

Boston.) Briefer than the above. 
Series. 

63. American Statesmen Series. (36 vols. Houghton, Mifflin, Boston.) 

Especially Schurz's Henry Clay. The series is a library in itself. 

64. Riverside Biographical Series. (Small vols. Very low-priced. 

Houghton, above.) Especially Raymond's Peter Cooper. 

65. American Men of Energy Series. (Putnams, N.Y.) Especially 

Brooks's Henry Knox and Livingston's Israel Putnam. 

66. American Commonwealths. (Houghton, Mifflin, Boston.) Especially 

Garrison's Texas. Generally a very fine series, but not all the books 
are equally excellent and reliable. 

67. Irving' s Columbus, Washington, Granada, Astoria, Knickerbocker, 



APPENDICES. 637 



Bonneville. (Putnarns, N.Y.) Our first great man of letters. Ex- 
cept in Knickerbocker, the history is reliable in the main facts. As 
a boy under ten I read all these books with delight. They aroused 
a strong and lasting interest in history. 

Histories of American Literature. 

68. Woodberry's Literature in America. (Harpers, N.Y.) By the 
greatest American critic of these times. Very attractive. 

60. Wendell's Literary History of America. (Scribners, N.Y.) Brilliant 
in style : suggestive : decidedly enthusiastic for New England. 

70. Lawton's (Globe S. B. Co., N.Y.), Bates's (Macmillan, N.Y.), 

Pancoast's (Holt, N. Y.), and Trent's (Appleton, N.Y.) are all excel- 
lent Histories of American Literature. 

71. Stedman's and Hutchinson's Library of American Literature. (13 

vols. Benjamin, N.Y. ; also Webster, N.Y.) 

American Government. 

72. Hart's Actual Government applied under American conditions. (Long- 

mans, Green, N.Y.) All that the name implies, and more. 

73. Fiske's Civil Government. (Houghton, Mifflin, Boston.) 

74. Dole's The Young Citizen. (Heath, Boston.) Juvenile, but competent. 

75. . James and Sanford's Government in Stale and Nation. (Scribners, 

N.Y.) 

76. Strong and Shaeffer's Government of the American People. (Houghton, 

Mifflin, Boston.) 

Miscellaneous. 

77. Lodge and Roosevelt's Hero Tales from American History. (Century 

Co., N.Y.) 

78. Seawell's Twelve Naval Captains. (Scribners, N.Y.) 

79. D uyckinck' s Portrait Gallery of Famous Americans. (Johnson, Fry, 

N.Y.) 

80. Hinsdale' s How to Study and Teach History. (Appleton, N.Y.) 

81. Mace's Method in History. (Ginn, Boston.) 

82. Dellenbaugh's North Americans of Yesterday. Indians. (Putnarns, 

N.Y.) 

83. Brinton's American Pace. (McKay, Philadelphia.) 

84. Bryce's American Commonwealth. (Macmillan, N.Y. 2 vols., also 

1 vol. abridgement.) 

85. Larned's Literature of American History. (Houghton, Mifflin, Boston.) 

Fine bibliography. 

86. Report of Committee of Seven of American Historical Association. 



638 APPENDICES. 



(Macmillan, N.Y.) I disagree profoundly with the order recom- 
mended, but recognize many valuable suggestions. 

87. Report of Committee of Ten, National Educational Association. 

(Amer. Bk. Co., N.Y.) 

88. Bourne's The Teaching of History and Civics. (Longmans, Green, 

N.Y.) 

89. Channing and Hart's Guide to American History. (Ginn, Boston.) 

90. Story of the West Series. Grinnel's Indian, Saut's Trapper, Forsyth's 

Soldier, etc. 

91. Woodburn's American Republic and its Government. (Putnams, N.Y.) 

Historical Fiction. 

92. Wells Smith's The Young Puritans in King Philip" 1 s War. 

93. Cooper's Last of the Mohicans. Early Indians. 

94. Griffis's Pathfinders of the Revolution. Iroquois Indians. 

95. Coffin's Boys of' 76. 1776. 

96. Carr's A Little Daughter of the Revolution. 1776. 

97. True's Morgan's Men. 1776. 

98. Kennedy's Horseshoe Robinson. 1776. 

99. Churchill's Richard Carvel. 1776. 

100. Ham's The Cruise of the Petrel. 1812. 

101. G. C. Eggleston's Captain Sam, Boy Scout of 18 14. 

102. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. Slavery. 

103. Munroe's Golden Bays of '49. 1849. 

104. Coffin's Boys of "61. 1861. 

105. Churchill's The Crisis. 1861. 

106. Benton's As Seen from the Ranks. 1861. 

107. Brooks's Century Book for Young Americans. Our government. 

Correlations of History and Literature. 

Longfellow's Hiawatha. Early Indians. 
Longfellow's Evangeline. Intercolonial Wars. 
Thackeray's Virginians. George Washington. 
Holme's Old Ironsides. War of 1812. 
Lowell's Biglow Papers. Mexican War. 
Stedman's American Anthology. Poetry. 
Stedman's Wanted — A Man. Civil War, 1862. 
Read's Sheridan's Ride. Civil War. 1864. 
Lowell's Commemoration Ode. (Lincoln.) 
Hale's The Man Without a Country. 

These are but suggestions. Bryant wrote many historical poems. 
Whittier was the great anti-slavery poet. 



APPENDICES. 639 



Maps. 

Charming and Hart's Smaller Outline Maps. (Heath, Boston.) 

New Century Development Maps. (Morse, N.Y.) Outlines. 

U.S. Government Survey Maps. 

Also large maps of standard makers. (Rand, McNally, Chicago, etc., etc. ) 

Encyclopedias. 

Lamed' s History for Beady Reference. (6 vols. Nichols, Springfield, Mass.) 

Universal history. Excellent bibliography upon American history. 

Harper's Encyclopedia of U. S. History. (10 vols. Harpers, N.Y.) 

Unusually accurate for so large a work. 
Of the general encyclopedias, the Britannica (tenth edition) and the 
Universal are perhaps the most accurate and thorough. 

The catalogues of the publishers will be found helpful : e.g. Macmillan : 
Houghton : Scribners : Putnams : Harpers: Little : Longmans : McClurg : 
Burrows : Clark. There are bibliographies in many of the books in the 
foregoing list. See Nos. 1, 13-16, 28, 85, 86, 88, 89. 

See also the catalogues of the general booksellers. Many books actually 
as good as new come into the possession of the second-hand booksellers. 
Rare books are also to be found in their possession. Parents, citizens, or 
friends of the school will often donate or lend books. 

Illustrated books are very valuable in the early years of historical study. 

For a discussion of the methods of modern historical study, see Chan- 
cellor's Present Aspects of History. (Educational Foundations, Sept., 1899. 
Kellogg, N.Y.) Deals with truth, and how to find it. 

The brevity of the foregoing list compels me to omit many titles of 
valuable books. I shall be ready at any time to answer inquiries addressed 
in care of the publishers, New York, regarding books, authorities, etc. On 
request I will furnish prices and make suggestions for purchases. 

A Ten-dollar Library. 

No. 1, or Nos. 10, 28, 31, 40, 57, or (of especial interest to the pupils) 
Nos. 6, 40, 61, 64, 65, 71, 72, 76, 77, 79. 

A Twenty-five-dollar Library. 

Nos. 1, 12, 28, 32, 37, 39, 58, 60, 65. 67. 



INDEX. 



Prepared by Mr. Samuel H. Dodson, Ph.M., Instructor in History, Bloomfield High 
School ; lecturer on History, New York City Board of Education ; also, American 
Society for University Extension ; lecturer on Philosophy and History, Brooklyn 
Institute of Arts and Sciences, etc. 



Abolitionists, in the North, 337 ; publica- 
tions of, 337-3-40 ; action of, 337-341, 352 ; 
placard against Fugitive Slave Law of 
the, 353 ; and Kansas, 355. 

Aborigines, 129-138. 

Acadia, the French in, 168-169; inhabi- 
tants dispersed, 174. 

Adams, Charles Francis, minister at Lon- 
don, 371. 

Adams, John, elected President, 317 ; por- 
trait of, 318; failure as a politician, 
319 ; defeated by Jefferson, 323. 

Adams, John Quincy, Secretary of State, 
330; and the Monroe Doctrine, 330- 
331; portrait of, 334; elected President 
by House of Representatives, 334 ; 
character of, 335 ; defeat of, 335 ; en- 
ters Congress, 335, 338. 

Adams, Samuel, 203. 

Admission of States, 283-287, 331. 

Agriculture, in times of the revolution, 
294-295 ; in 1900, 531. 

Alabama, secedes, 361. 

Alabama, Confederate cruiser, construc- 
tion of, 373 ; defeated by the Kear- 
sarge, 489. 

Alabama Claims, 391. 

" Alamo, The," massacre at, 340. 

Alaska, purchase of, 280, 379 ; boundary 
troubles, 413-414. 

Albany Congress, in 1754, 197. 

Algonquin Indians, 131-132. 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 318. 

Allen, Ethan, takes Ticonderoga, 235. 

Amendments, to the Constitution, ten 
adopted, 301-302; thirteenth, 372; 
fourteenth, 377. 

America, discovered by Northmen, 38-39 ; 
. discovered by Columbus, 29 ; origin of 
name, 35-36 ; oldest settlement in, 53. 

American Revolution, 202-302 ; the war of 
the, 232-273. 

Anarchy, 547. 



Anderson, Major Robert, 446. 

Andre, John, British spy, 262; arrest 

and execution, 263. 
Andros, Sir Edmund, governor of New 

England, 105 ; driven out, 106. 
Annapolis Convention, in 1786, 293. 
Annexation of Texas, 346. 
Antietam, battle of, 372, 469. 
Anti-slavery movement, rising power of 

the, 337-341. 
Appomattox Courthouse , Lee's surrender 

at, 487. 
Arbitration, of the " Alabama," 391. 
Arizona, explored, 52. 
Arkansas, secedes, 361 ; readmitted, 380. 
Art, 563. 

Army, Continental, established, 238. 
Army, United States, administration of, in 

Spanish War, 515. 
Arnold, Benedict, leads expedition into 

Canada, 239, 249 ; treason of, 263 ; in 

the South with British, 263, 266 ; in 

Connecticut, 268. 
Arthur, Chester A., portrait, 397 ; becomes 

President, 397 ; his administration, 397. 
Articles of Confederation, framed, 292-93. 
Associations, 566, 573. 
Assumption of State debts, 211-312. 
Atlanta, capture of, 481. 
Atlantic Cable, 386. 
Atlantic coast, fisheries of, 62. 
Automobiles, 568-569. 
Asia, unrest of Turks in, 31 ; riches of, 

32, 41 ; Turks in, 42. 
Aztecs, conquest of, by Spaniards, 49 ; 

De Soto finds, 52, 56, 130. 
Bacon's Rebellion, 88. 
Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, discovers the 

" South Sea" (Pacific Ocean), 36. 
Baltimore, Lord. See Calvert. 
Bank, United States, established, 312; 

fails of recharter, 339-340. 
Banks, General, takes Port Hudson, 474. 



641 



642 



INDEX. 






Banks, in the colonies, 154; history of, 
534-535. 

Banks, state, "wild-cat," 339-340, 532; 
national, established, 369-370. 

Barbary States, 323, 417. 

Beauregard, General, at Shiloh, 454. 

Beecher, Henry Ward, portrait, 372 ; in 
England, 372. 

Bell, John, nominated for the Presidency, 
359. 

Bemis Heights, battle of, 250. 

Bennington, battle of, 248. 

Bering, Vitus, Russian explorer, 71. 

Berkeley, Sir William, royal governor of 
Virginia, 86, 88-89. 

Berlin Decree, Napoleon's, 325. 

Blaine, James G., candidate for Presi- 
dency, 397. 

Body of Liberties, Constitution of Massa- 
chusetts, 100-101. 

Bonds, 370. 

"Bonne-Homme Richard" and " Ser- 
apis," battle of, 270. 

Boone, Daniel, 187-188. 

Booth, John Wilkes, 374-375. 

Border States in the Civil War, 368. 

Boston, Mass., founded, 97 ; siege of, 238. 

Boston Massacre, 207. 

Boston Port Bill, 210. 

Boston " Tea Party," 204, 209. 

Boundary disputes, 348, 413, 432. 

Braddock's defeat, 173-174. 

Bradford, William, second governor of 
Plymouth, 95. 

Bragg, Gen. Braxton, 455 ; succeeds Beau- 
regard, 471 ; at Stone River, 471 ; in 
Chattanooga campaign, 478. 

Brandy wine, battle of, 251. 

Breckinridge, John C. , candidate for Pres- 
idency, 359. 

Brown, John, and Kansas, 355; raid on 
Harper's Ferry, 358. 

Bryan, William J., candidate for Pres- 
idency, 403, 407. 

Buchanan, James, portrait, 356; elected 
President, 356 ; policy of, 358 ; action 
of his cabinet, 358. 

Buckner, Gen. Simon, 452. 

Bull Run (or Manassas), first battle of, 
449-451 ; second battle of, 496. 



Bunker Hill, battle of, 235-238. 

Burgesses, Virginia House of, 85, 86, 88. 

Burgoyne, Gen. John, campaign from 
Canada, 248 ; checked by Schuyler, 248, 

Burke, Edmund, 227. 

Burns, Anthony, fugitive slave, 352. 

Burnside, Gen. A. E., supersedes McClel- 
lan, 469; defeated at Fredericksburg, 
and superseded by Hooker, 469. 

Burr, Aaron, kills Hamilton in a duel, 
324 ; his conspiracy and trial, 325. 

Butler, Gen. Benjamin F., in New Or- 
leans, 460. 

Cabinet, President's, organization of, 310. 

Cable. See Atlantic Cable. 

Cabot, John, discovers America, 34; re- 
warded by Henry VIII, 35. 

Calhoun, John C, in Congress, 327 ; favors 
tariff of 1816, 329; portrait of, 337; 
opposes Right of Petition, 338-339. 

California, Gulf of, Spaniards at, 51 ; ad- 
mitted, 348. 

Calvert, Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore, 
founds Maryland, 118. 

Calvert, George, first Lord Baltimore, se- 
cures charter for Maryland, 118. 

Camden, battle of, 264. 

Canals, 525. 

Cities, growth of, 519. 

Coal, 526.. 

Colleges and Universities, 553. 

Columbus, sketch of, 25 ; signature of, 26 ; 
motive of, 26, 30 ; difficulties in way of, 
26-27 ; voyages of, 28-29 ; results of his 
discoveries, 31-32. 

Commerce, in the colonies, 153-154; dur- 
ing the Napoleonic regime, 326, 327 ; 
Departments of, established, 410. 

Committees of Correspondence, 217, 292. 

" Common Sense " pamphlet of Paine, 223. 

Compromises, in the Constitution, 299 ; 
Missouri, 331 -332 ; tariff, 337 ; of 1850, 
350 ; Crittenden, 360-361. 

Concord, battle of, 233. 

Confederacy, New England. See New 
England. 

Confederacy, Southern, 361 ; bonds of 
370 ; established, 444. 

Confederation, Articles of, 292-293. 

Congress, Colonial, 197, 207 ; First Conti- 



INDEX. 



643 



nental, 210 ; Second Continental, 217- 
218, 292-293. 

Congress of the United States, established 
under the Constitution, 300-301 ; acts 
of the first, 311-312. 

Connecticut, coast of, explored, 50 ; set- 
tlements in, 98, 99 ; adopts a written 
constitution, 99. 

Constitution, conventions called, 294, 295 ; 
meeting of, 295-296 ; men in the, 298- 
299 ; compromises in, 299-300 ; depart- 
ments of government under, 300-301 ; 
ratified, 301 ; amendments to, 302. 

*' Constitution " and " Guerriere," battle 
of, 421-422. 

Continental Congress. See Congress. 

Continental money, 221. See Currency. 

Conventions, Constitutional, 295-296; 
Hartford, 328. 

Cooper, Peter, portrait of , 574. 

Cornwallis, Lord, in New Jersey, 244-246 ; 
at the Brandywine, 251 ; in the South, 
264, 266, 268 ; surrenders at Yorktown, 
268-269. 

Coronado, Francesco Vasquez, Spanish 
explorer, 51, 52. 

Correspondence, Committees of, 217, 292. 

Corporations, 541, 547. 

Cotton, manufacturing, 329, 520, 521. 

Cotton-gin, invention of, 520. 

Council of the Indies, Spanish governing 
body for colonies, 59. 

Cromwell, Oliver, and Virginia, 87. 

Crown Point, taken by English, 174 ; 
taken by Seth Warner, 235. 

Cortez, Hernando, Spanish explorer, con- 
quers Mexico, 47-49 ; 56. 

Cuba, Island, discovery of, 29 ; in war 
with Spain, 405, 508-509, 511-517 ; be- 
comes an independent nation, 410, 517. 

Currency, paper, 221, 226, 261 ; gold dis- 
covered, 347 ; in 1860, 369 ; in Civil 
War, 392 ; gold and silver, 400-401, 
532-535. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, governor of Virginia, 
83-84, 85. 

Dare, Virginia, first white child born in 
America, 55. 

Davenport, John, founder of New Haven, 
103. 



Davis, Jefferson, in Pierce cabinet, 355 ; 
portrait, 367 ; orders attack on Fort 
Sumter, 447 ; captured, 488. 

Debt, national, in 1789, 311 ; in 1815, 328; 
in 1837, 340. 

Debts, state, assumption of, 311-312. 

Decatur, Lieut. Stephen, 422. 

Declaration of Independence, 222-224; fac- 
simile of, 224 ; written by Jefferson, 225. 

DeKalb, 227,247. 

Delaware, Lord, governor of Virginia, 83- 
84. 

Delaware, settled by Swedes, 69; taken 
by Dutch, 113 ; as part of Pennsylva- 
nia, 124. 

Democracy, in early Virginia, 85. 

Democratic Party, rise of, 335-336 ; elect 
Jackson, 335, and Polk', 346 ; elect 
Pierce, 354 ; elect Buchanan, 356 ; in 
1860, 359. 

Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jef- 
ferson, 309, 312 ; in election of 1796, 317. 

Department of Commerce , established, 410. 

Desert, Great American, 531. 

Dewey, Commodore George, victory at 
Manila Bay, 509-511. 

Dickinson, John, author of " Farmer's 
Letters," 203. 

Dingley Tariff, 405. 

Dinwiddie, royal governor of Virginia, 
171 ; sends Washington to the French, 
171-172. 

Donelson, Fort, taken by Grant, 452. 

Douglas, Stephen A., debates with Lin- 
coln, 357 ; candidate for Presidency, 
359 ; supports Lincoln and the war, 367. 

Drake, Francis, voyage around the world, 
53. 

Dred Scott Decision, 356. 

Duquesne, Fort (Pittsburg), founded, 
171-172 ; taken by Washington, 177. 

Dutch in America, send out Hudson, 68; 
settle New York, 68-69, 111 ; establish 
New Amsterdam, 111-113 ; troubles of, 
113-114; lose New Netherlands, 114 ; 
take New Sweden, 113. 

Duties. See Tariff. 

Early, Gen. J. A., threatens Washington, 
485 ; defeated by Sheridan, 485-486. 

Earth, the, views concerning shape of, 



6U 



INDEX. 



25, 26, 42 ; circumnavigation of, 37, 
53. 

East Indies, Portuguese win, 33; riches 
of, 36. 

Edison, Thomas, 537. 

Education, in the colonies, 143, 151-152 ; in 
1900, 552-556. 

Election, Presidential. See Presidential 
Elections. 

Electoral College, 317, 323, 334. 

Electoral Commission, 393-394. 

Electricity, 536. 

Emancipation, Proclamation of, issued, 
371-372. 

Embargo, 326, 327. 

England, new position of, 55 ; influence 
on America, 150 ; wars with, 232-271, 
327-328 ; in Civil War, 373. 

English discoveries and explorers, 34, 53- 
55, 67, 70 ; claims and map of, 76. 

Era of good feeling, 334. 

Ericson, Leif. See Leif. 

Ericsson, John, invents the "Monitor," 
460 ; portrait, 462 ; improves steamboat 
522. 

Europe, discovery of America affects, 31- 
32 ; rivalry over America, 34 ; new in- 
ventions in, 41. 

European history in relation to America, 
582-599. 

Europeans, oldest settlement of, in Amer- 
ica, 53. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 267. 

Expansion. See Territorial Expansion. 

Expansion policy. See Imperialism. 

Explorations, of Spain, 29, 36, 47-9, 52, 53, 
57; of Portugal, 32-33, 35, 37; of 
France, 35, 50, 53, 61-63, 72-73; of 
Northmen, 38-39 ; of England, 34-35, 
53-55, 67, 70 ; of Holland, 68-69. 

Factory life, 539. 

Fairs, 566. 

Faneuil Hall, Boston, 339. 

"Farmer's Letters," 203. 

Farragut, Admiral D. G., atNew Orleans, 
458^59 ; portrait, 459, 460 ; takes Mo- 
bile, 488. 

♦'Federalist, The," 296. 

Federalist party, led by Hamilton, 309, 
312, 314 ; in the election of 1796, 317 ; 



passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 318 ; 
opposes War of 1812, 328. 

Ferdinand, King of Spain, visit of Colum- 
bus to, 27 ; conquest of Moors, 27. 

Field, Cyrus W. , and the Atlantic Cable, 
386. 

Fillmore, Millard, portrait, 350 ; succeeds 
to Presidency, 350. 

Florida, discovered, 36; explored, 51; 
Huguenot colony in, 53 ; Spanish col- 
ony, St. Augustine, 53 ; acquired by the 
United States, 279, 330 ; secedes, 361. 

Foote, Rear- Admiral A. H., takes Fort 
Henry, 452. 

Force Bill, of 1832, 337. 

Franchise, 576-578. 

Franklin, Benjamin, early work of, 156, 
173 ; efforts for union, 197-198, 203, 
205, 212; letter of, 216; portrait of, 
228 ; secures aid from France, 226-227 ; 
secures an alliance with France, 253 ; 
in the Constitutional Convention, 298, 
300. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 469. 

Freedmen's Bureau, 377. 

Free-Soilers, their theory, 355. 

Fremont, John C, explores the Rocky 
Mountains, 74 ; in the West, 451. 

French and Indian War, 170-179 ; maps of, 
181. 

French, explorers and discoveries of, 50 ; 
motive of, 35, 50, 53, 61-63, 72-73 ; claims 
and map of, 76-77 ; in New York, 112, 
165 ; Avars in America, 166-181 ; alliance 
with America, 253 ; aid, 268 ; secures 
Louisiana, and cedes to U. S., 324. 

Friends. See Quakers. 

Fugitive Slave Law, first enacted, 312; 
in 1850, 350, 351-352. 

Fulton, Robert, invents steamboat, 521. 

Gadsden Purchase , 279. 

Gage, Gen. Thomas, royal governor of 
Massachusetts, 210 ; sends troops to 
Concord, 233 ; recalled, 235. 

Gallatin, Robert, in Jefferson's cabinet, 
323-324. 

Gama, Vasco da, Portuguese explorer, 
32-33. 

Garfield, James A. , portrait, 396 ; elected 
President, and assassination of, 396. 



INDEX. 



645 



Garrison, William Lloyd, leader of aboli- 
tionists, 337 ; establishes " The Libera- 
tor," 337 ; portrait of, 339. 

" Gaspee," ship, destroyed, 208. 

Gates, Gen. Horatio, supersedes Schuyler, 
249 ; at Saratoga, 250 ; in the South, 
264 ; removed from army, 264. 

General Court, legislature of Massachu- 
setts colony, 98, 100. 

Genet, Edmond Charles, French minister, 
314. 

Genoa, home of Columbus. 25 ; refuses aid 
to Columbus, 27 ; trade-route of, map 
of, 41. 

Geographic knowledge, early views of, 
26, 35, 42. 

Georgia, settled, 158, 161 ; made a royal 
colony, 161-162 ; secedes, 361. 

George III, portrait of, 226; abandons 
American struggle, 269-271. 

Germans in America, 123, 196. 

Germantown, battle of, 252. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 475—178. 

Ghent, treaty of, 429. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, English explorer, 
67. 

Gold, discovered in California, 347. See 
Currency. Gold and silver, 532. 

Gomez, Maximo, Cuban leader, 508. 

Grant, Ulysses S., portrait, 391 ; Presi- 
dent, 391 ; character, 392 ; in Mexican 
"War, 442 ; takes Fort Donelson, 453 ; 
at Shiloh, 454-455 ; at Vicksburg, 472- 
475 ; in command of the West, 480 ; 
in command of Union Army, 481 ; in 
Virginia, 484-4S7 ; receives surrender 
of Lee, 487. 

Grasse, Commodore de, aids in Yorktown 
campaign, 268-269. 

Great Britain, makes peace -with America, 
271 ; and the Venezuelan dispute, 403. 

Greeley, Horace, 361 ; candidate for Presi- 
dency, 392. 

Greene, Gen. Nathaniel, portrait of, 264; 
succeeds Gates in command of the 
South, 264-265, 266, 267. 

Guilford Court House, battle of, 266. 

Hale, Nathan, 242. 

Halleck, Gen. Henry W. , 453 ; in command 
of the West, 457; chief in command, 468. 



Hamilton, Alexander, with "Washington, 
251 ; in the cabinet, 309 ; leader of the 
Federalists, 309, 311, 312; duel with 
Burr, and death, 324-325 ; portrait of, 
325. 

Harper's Ferry, John Brown at. 358. 

Harrison, Benjamin, portrait, 400; elected 
President, 400 ; events of his adminis- 
tration, 400-401 ; defeated by Cleve- 
land, 401. 

Harrison, Gen. William Henry, defeats 
Tecumseh,327 ; electedPresident, 341 ; 
portrait of, 342 ; death of, 342 ; in War 
of 1812, 424. 

Hartford Convention, 328. 

Harvard College, founded, 104. 

Harvey, Sir John, governor of Virginia, 86. 

Hawaii, Cleveland and, 402 ; annexed to 
United States, 407. 

Hawkins, Sir John, English seaman and 
freebooter, 53, 55 ; engaged in slave 
trade, 63. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., candidate for 
Presidency, 393 ; chosen President, 
393-394 ; withdraws troops from the 
South, 395. 

Hayne, Robert Y., debate with Webster, 
337. 

Helper, H. R., author of " The Impend- 
ing Crises of the South," 357. 

Henry, Fort, taken by Foote, 452. 

Henry, Patrick, 203. 

Herkimer, Gen. Nicholas, atOriskany,249. 

Hessians, 244-245. 

Holland, claims in America, 77. 

Holy Alliance, 330, 331. 

Hood, Gen. J. B., supersedes Gen. Johns- 
ton, 481 ; defeated at Atlanta, 481, and 
at Nashville, 483. 

Hooker, Gen. Joseph, supersedes Burn- 
side, 469 ; at Chattanooga, 480. 

Hooker, Rev. Thomas, f ranter of Con- 
necticut Constitution, 99. 

House of Representatives, of the United 
States, established, 299 ; elects John 
Quincy Adams President, 334. 

Houston, Gen. Samuel, Texan leader, 340 ; 
portrait, 347. 

Howe, Admiral Lord, joins Gen. Howe, 241. 

Howe, Gen. William, at Bunker Hill, 



646 



INDEX. 



235-238 ; in command of British forces, 
235; evacuates Boston, 238; in New 
York, 240-242 ; in New Jersey, 245 ; fails 
to join Burgoyne, 250; moves to Phil- 
adelphia, 251-252 ; recalled, 255. 

Hudson, Henry, portrait of, 68; discovers 
Hudson river, 68, and Hudson Bay, 68. 

Huguenots, in Florida, 53; colony of, 
destroyed, 53, 60 ; in Carolina, 160. 

Hull, Gen. William, 421. 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 100. 

Illiteracy, 555, 556. 

Immigration, to colonies, 160-161 ; to 
West, 160, 187-189, 288 ; in 1850, 289. 

Impeachment of President Johnson, 378. 

Imperialism, 407. 

Impressment of American sailors, 326, 327; 

Incas, conquest of, by Pizarro, 49 ; riches 
of, 49 ; De Soto and the, 52, 56, 129-130. 

Income tax, passed, 401 ; declared uncon- 
stitutional, 401. 

Independent Treasury system, estab- 
lished, 341. 

India, all-sea route to, need of, 41 ; trade 
with, 42. 

Indian Ocean, 41. 

Indians, found by Columbus, 29; as 
slaves, 50 ; De Soto's trouble with, 52 ; 
pueblos and cliff-villages of, 52 ; mis- 
sion of Las Casas to, 56 ; trade with, 
62 ; in Virginia, 82 ; in New York, 111- 
112 ; in Pennsylvania, 123-124 ; and 
early settlers, 129-138 ; wars with, 140- 
143 ; in French wars, 166-180 ; in North- 
west Territory, 316. 

Interstate Commerce Act, 398. 

Inventions, 40, 41. 

Iroquois Indians, 111-112, 131, 132, 134, 171. 

Irrigation, 531. 

Isabella, Queen of Spain, visit of Colum- 
bus to, 27 ; conquest of Moors, 27. 

Isthmian Canal, 411-412. 

Italy, trade in East, 34 ; sea-captains of , 
34 ; relation to early learning, 34 ; map 
of trade routes, 41. 

Jackson, Andrew, at New Orleans, 328; 
invades Florida, 330 ; candidate for 
Presidency, 334 ; elected President, 335; 
character of, 336; his administrations, 
336-340 ; and nullification, 337 ; and the 



Bank, 339-340 ; portrait of, 336 ; in 
War of 1812, 425-428. 

Jackson, Gen. Thomas J. (" Stonewall") 
467 ; portrait, 468. 

James I, charters Virginia Company, 82. 

Jamestown, Virginia, Gosnold at, 67; 
founded, 70, 82; troubles in, 82-83; 
women in , S4. 

Jay, John, portrait of, 314; makes a 
treaty with England, 314-315. 

Jefferson, Thomas, drafts Declaration of 
Independence, 225 ; in the Cabinet, 
309 ; views on the Constitution, 312- 
313 ; leader of Democratic-Republicans, 
309, 312-313 ; opposes Hamilton, 312- 
313 ; elected President, 323 ; portrait of, 
322 ; author of Kentucky Resolutions, 
318 ; character and policy of, 322-323 ; 
Embargo Proclamation of, 326 ; retires 
from public service, 326. 

Johnson, Andrew, portrait, 376; becomes 
President, 376 ; and Congress, 377 ; his 
policy of reconstruction, 377 ; im- 
peached, 378 ; acquitted, 378. 

Johnson, Gen. A. S., in Kentucky, 452. 

Johnston, Gen. J. E., in Vicksburg cam- 
paign, 473 ; supersedes Bragg, 481 ; su- 
perseded by Hood, 481 ; reinstated ; 
surrenders to Sherman, 488. 

Joliet, Louis, French explorer, 72-73. 

Jones, John Paul, 228; defeats the 
" Serapis," and its effects, 270. 

Journalism, in the colonies, 152. 

Kansas, explored, 52 ; struggle in, 355. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 355-356. 

Kaskaskia, founded, 165 ; taken by Clark, 
258. 

"Kearsarge" and "Alabama" battle of, 
489. 

Kentucky, settled, 1S8. 

Kentucky Resolutions, 318. 

Kieft, governor of New Netherlands, 113. 

King George's War, 168-170. 

King Philip's War, 140-142 ; results of, 
143. 

King's Mountain, battle of, 265. 

King William's War, 166-167. 

Ku-Klux-Klan, 379. 

Labor Unions, 540. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, joins American 



INDEX. 



647 



army, 247 ; portrait of, 247 ; at York- 
town, 2G8. 

La Salle, Robert de, portrait, 73 ; explores 
the Lake region and the Mississippi 
river, 73-74. 

Las Casas, missionary to Indians, 56. 

Laud, Archbishop, persecutes Puritans, 96. 

Lawrence, Capt. James, defeated by the 
" Shannon," 423. 

Lee, Gen. Charles, disobedience and 
capture, 242-244 ; treachery of, 255. 

Lee, Gen. Robert E., at Vera Cruz, 442, 
467 ; portrait, 470 ; at Gettysburg, 475- 
478 ; and Grant in Virginia, 484-487 ; 
surrender of, 487. 

Leif, son of Eric the Red, discovers 
America, 38 ; in Iceland and Green- 
land, 38-39. 

Leisler's Insurrection, 115. 

Leon, Ponce de, Spanish explorer, dis- 
covers Florida, 36. 

Lewis and Clark, explores the North- 
west, 74. 

Lexington, battle of, 233. 

Liberia, Negro republic of, 282. 

Libraries, 556. 

Lincoln, General, defeated at Savannah, 
259 ; captured, 260. 

Lincoln, Abraham, debates with Douglas, 
357 ; portrait, 365 ; character of, 366- 
367 ; elected President, 365 ; first call for 
troops, 367, 447 ; issue? Emancipation 
Proclamation, 371 ; re-elected, 373 ; his 
cabinet, 371 ; assassination of, 374-375 ; 
letter of, 375. 

Lisbon, explorations from, 25. 

Literature, 557-559. 

Livingston, R. R., negotiates purchase 
of Louisiana, 324. 

London Company, formed, 82; founds 
Jamestown, 82. 

Long Island, battle of, 241. 

Longstreet, Gen. James, at Chickamauga, 
479. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 480-481. 

Louisburg, captured, 169 ; restored, 169 ; 
surrender of, 177. 

Louisiana, tei-ritory, limits of, 279; pur- 
chase of, 324 ; admitted, 331 ; secedes, 
361 ; readmitted, 380. 



Lovejoy, E. P., abolitionist martyr, 339. 

Loyalists. See Tories. 

Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, in Missouri, 418. 

Macdonough, Commodore Thomas, victory 
on Lake Champlain, 426. 

Madison, James, portrait of, 327; Pres- 
ident, 327 ; declares against England, 
327-328. 

Magellan (deMagalhaens), Fernando, Por- 
tuguese explorer, voyage of, 37-38 ; por- 
trait of, 38. 

"Maine," battleship, destruction of , 405, 
508. 

Maine, failure of first settlement, 91 ; ad- 
mission of, 331. 

Mail-service, in the colonies, 155. 

Manila Bay, battle of, 509-516. 

Manufactures, total of, in 1900, 529. 

Manufacturing, in the colonies, 147 ; after 
War of 1812, 328-329. 

Marco Polo, travels of, 32. 

Marion, Gen. Francis, 260, 268. 

Marquette, Pere, French missionary, 73. 

Marshall, James W., discovers gold in 
California, 347. 

Maryland, settlement of, charter granted 
first Lord Baltimore, 118 ; settled, 118 ; 
rule of the Calverts, 119 ; in the Civil 
War, 468-469. 

Mason and Dixon Line, 287. 

Massachusetts Bay, explored. 67. 

Massachusetts, settled by Puritans, 96-98 ; 
charters of, 96 ; General Court of, 98 ; 
adopts the Body of Liberties, 101 ; char- 
ter annulled, 104; under Andros, 105; 
under William III, 106-107 ; slaves in, 
196 ; resists taxation, 206-207. 

Massachusetts Bill, 210. 

Massasoit, 96. 

Maximilian, in Mexico, 379. 

" Mayflower," 94-95 ; Compact, 95. 

McClellan, Gen. Georgre B., candidate for 
Presidency, 373 ; in West Virginia, 449 ; 
near Washington, 460 ; Peninsulacarn- 
paign, 465-467. 

McDowell, Gen. Irvin, at Bull Run, 450- 
451. 

McKinley, William, elected President, 
403 ; re-elected, 407 ; portrait, 405 ; as- 
sassination of, 408 ; call for troops, 511. 



648 



INDEX. 



McKinley Tariff, 400. 

Meade, Gen. George G., succeeds Hooker, 
470 ; at Gettysburg, 471, 475-478. 

Menendez, Spanish explorer, founds St. 
Augustine, Fla., 53, 60. 

" Merrimac," Confederate ironclad, and 
the " Monitor," battle of, 460-463. 

Mexican War, 432-442 ; results of, 440-441. 

Mexico, conquest of, 49 ; riches of, 49, 52 ; 
lost to Spain, 78. 

Mexico, City of, taken by Americans, 438- 
440. 

Miles, Gen. Nelson A. , in Porto Rico, 515. 

Minuit, Peter, governor of New Nether- 
lands, G8-69, 112. 

Minutemen, at Lexington and Concord, 
233. 

Mississippi River, discovered by De Soto, 
52 ; explored by La Salle, 73-74. 

Mississippi, secedes, 361. 

Missouri, admission of, 331. 

Missouri Compromise, 331-332. 

Mobile, taken by Farragut, 488. 

Money. See Currency. 

"Monitor" and "Merrimac," battle of, 
460-463. 

Monroe, James, portrait of, 329; Pres- 
ident, 329 ; character of his administra- 
tion, 329 ; issues his famous Doctrine, 
330-331. 

Monroe Doctrine, promulgated, 330-331 ; 
origin of, 331 ; Cleveland and, 403. 

Montcalm, Marquis de, defeated at Que- 
bec, 177-179. 

Montezuma, taken prisoner, 49. 

Montgomery, General, in expedition into 
Canada, 239. 

Morgan, Gen. Daniel, at battle of Cow- 
pens, 265-266. 

Morris, Robert, financier of the Revolu- 
tion, 261-262. 

Morse, Samuel F. B., 536. 

Moultrie, Gen. William, defeats British 
at Charleston, S.C., 240. 

Napoleon I., sells Louisiana to United 
States, 324 ; issues Berlin and Milan 
Decrees, 325 ; fall of, 328-329. 

Narvaez, Panfilode, Spanish explorer, 51. 

Nashville, Tenn., taken by General Buell, 
453. 



National Debt. See Debt. 

Navigation Act, in Virginia, 88; in the 
colonies, 198. 

Navy, in Revolutionary War, 269-270 ; re- 
duced by Jefferson, 323. 

Negroes, slaves in Spain, 50; in Caroli- 
nas, 161 ; insurrection of, 185 ; num- 
bers of, in 1776, 225, 412-413. 

Neutrality, Proclamation of, 313. 

New Amsterdam (New York City), found- 
ed, 111-113 ; taken by English, 114. 

New England, Northmen in, 38; coast 
explored by John Smith, 70; settle- 
ments in, 94-99 ; confederation of, 102- 
194 ; under Andros, 105, 199. 

Newfoundland, discovered, 35; fisheries 
of, 40. 

New France, 76-77. 

New Hampshire, colonies in, 94-97; sepa- 
rated from Massachusetts, 103. 

New Haven, Conn., founded, 99 ; incorpo- 
rated with Connecticut, 103. 

New Jersey, settlement of, 119 ; sold to 
Quakers, 119-120 ; troubles in, 120; be- 
comes a royal colony, 120. 

New Mexico, explored, 52 ; ceded by Mex- 
ico, 440 ; Gadsden purchase, 279. 

New Netherlands, settled by Dutch, 111- 
113 ; troubles in, 113 ; taken by Eng- 
lish, 114 ; named New York, 114. 

New Orleans, battle of, 427-428. 

Newspapers, 548. 

Newspapers, in the colonies, 152. 

New World, discovery of, 30 ; claims in, 35 ; 
of Spain, 36 ; richest people in, 49 ; first 
adventurers in, 64-65. 

New York, harbor of, discovered, 50; set- 
tlement of, 68-69, 111 ; taken by English, 
114. 

New York City, population in 1760, 190. 

Normal Schools, 554. 

North America, discovered by English, 34 ; 
coast of, claimed, 35 ; Huguenot colony 
in, 53, 54. 

North Carolina, coast of, explored, 50, 54 ; 
settled, 121; trouble in, 121; secedes, 361. 

Northmen, voyages of, 38-39 ; route, map 
of, 39 ; influence of, 39. 

North, Lord, English Prime Minister, 211, 



INDEX. 



649 



Northwest Passage, 71-72. 
Northwest Territory, ordinance for gov- 
erning, 283, 294 ; Indians in, 316. 
Nova Scotia, early settlements in, 62-63 ; 

in French Wars, 167, 174. 
Nullification, in Kentucky and Virginia 

Resolutions, 318 ; theory of Hayne, 337 ; 

opposed by Jackson, 337 ; ordinance 

passed, and repealed, 337. 
Oglethorpe, James, settles Georgia, 158. 
Ohio, French in, 171. 
Ohio Company, 171. 
Old World, geographic knowledge of, 26, 

35, 42 ; effects of discoveries upon, 31-32; 

Marco Polo travels in, 32 ; map of, 33. 
Orders in Council, 325. 
Ordinance of 1787, 283, 294. 
Oregon, 279, 280, 329, 348. 
Oriskany, battle of, 249. 
Otis, James, 203. 

Pacific Ocean, discovery of, 36 ; named, 36. 
Paine, Thomas, "Common Sense" pam- 
phlet, 223. 
Palma, Thomas Estrada, first President 

of Cuba, 
Palo Alto, battle of , 434. 
Palos, visit of Columbus to, 27. 
Panama, city of, 60. 
Pan-American Congress, 408 ; exposition 

of, 408. 
Panics, financial, of 1837, 340-341 ; of 

1873, 395 ; of 1893, 401, 402, 413. 
Parker, Theodore, portrait, 352. 
Parliament, power of, 103, 106, 204, 210- 

212. 
Parties, political, beginnings of, 317. See 

names of parties. 
Patroons, estates of, 113. 
Pemberton, Gen. J. C, at Vicksburg, 473- 

474. 
Peninsula Campaign, 465-467. 
Penn, William, acquires land in New Jer- 
sey, 120 ; grant from Charles II, 123 ; 

founds Philadelphia, 123 ; portrait of, 

124. 
Pennsylvania, founded, 73 ; granted to 

Penn, 123 ; settled, 123 ; asylum for all, 

123-124, 157. 
People's Party. See Populist. 
PequotWar, 140. 



Persecutions, in Massachusetts, 99; 
witches, 106-107. 

Perry, Commodore Oliver H., on Lake 
Erie, 423-424. 

Petersburg, Siege of, 484. 

Philadelphia, founded, 123 ; taken by Brit- 
ish, 251 ; exposition at, 392. 

Petition, Right Of, 335, 338, 341. 

Philanthropists, 574. 

Philippine Islands, 281 ; ceded to the Uni- 
ted States, 405 ; condition in 1901, 409. 

Phillips, Wendell, abolitionist orator, 
339 ; portrait, 361. 

Phips, Sir William, 167. 

Physical training, 567. 

Pickens, Gen., 260,268. 

Pickett, Gen. George E., at Gettysburg, 
477. 

Pierce, Franklin, portrait, 354; elected 
President, 354 ; character of, 354. 

Pilgrims, 91 ; persecuted in England, 92- 
93 ; fled to Holland, 93 ; found Plym- 
outh, 94-96. 

Pinckney, Charles C. , candidate for Vice- 
Presidency, 323. 

Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, portrait 
of, 227 ; opposes taxing America, 227. 

Pizarro, Francesco, Spanish explorer, 
conquest of Peru, 49, 56. 

Plymouth, founded by Pilgrims, 91. 

Plymouth Company, formed, 82; failure 
of Maine colony, 91. 

Pocahontas, marries John Rolfe, 84. 

Political Parties. See Parties. 

Politics, summary of, 600-603. 

Polk, James K., portrait, 346; elected 
President, 346 ; declares war against 
Mexico, 434. 

Pontiac, conspiracy of, 179-180. 

Pope Alexander VI, divides the " New 
World," 75. 

Pope, Gen. John, commands army of Vir- 
ginia, 468. 

Popular Sovereignty. See Squatter Sover- 
eignty. 

Population, in 1700, 125-126; in 1760 to 
1775, 186, 225 ; in 1903, 288-290 ; in 1800, 
519. 

Populist (or People's) Party, in the elec- 
tion' of 1896, 403. 



650 



INDEX. 



Porter, Admiral, 488. 

Port Hudson, fall of, 474. 

Porto Rico, 281 ; ceded to United States, 
405, 511. 

Port Royal, destroyed by Spaniards, 60 ; 
in Nova Scotia, founded, G2-63 ; taken 
by English, 167. 

Portugal, seafaring interests of, 26 ; ex- 
plorations of, 35, 37 ; subject to Spain, 
55, 62 ; claims of , 76. 

Portuguese, on west coast of Africa, 32- 
33 ; descendants of, in Cape Cod, 40. 

Poverty, 546. 

Powhatan, 82. 

President of the United States, powers, 
300-301. 

Presidential election, of 1789, 307 ; of 1792, 
314 ; of 1796, 317 ; of 1800, 323 ; of 1804, 
324 ; of 1824, 334 ; of 1828, 335 ; of 1840, 
341 ; of 1844, 346 ; of 1848, 349 ; of 1852, 
354 ; of 1856, 356 ; of 1860, 359 ; of 1864, 
373 ; of 1868, 379 ; of 1872, 392 ; of 1876, 
393 ; of 1880, 396 ; of 1884, 397 ; of 1888, 
398 ; of 1892, 401 ; of 1896, 403 ; of 1900, 
407. 

Presidential Succession Act, 398. 

Presidents and their parties, list of, Ap- 
pendix II. 

Press, freedom of, 155-156. 

Princeton, battle of, 245-246. 

Privateers, in 17th century, 63-64 ; fitted 
out by Genet, 314 ; in War of 1812, 
328. 

Proclamation of Neutrality, 313-314. 

Providence, R.I., founded, 100. 

Provincial Congress. See Congress. 

Pueblo Indians, 52. 

Puritans, 92-93 ; immigrants receive char- 
ter from Charles I, 96-97 ; settle New 
England, 97-99 ; in Maryland, 119. 

Quakers, in Massachusetts, 102-103; ac- 
quire New Jersey, 119-120 ; in Penn- 
sylvania, 122-123, 124. 

Quebec, taken by English, 177-179. 

Queen Anne's War, 167-168. 

Race struggles, 599. 

Railroads, 386-387, 523, 524 ; first Ameri- 
can, Baltimore and Ohio, 524. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, expeditions and col- 
onies of, 54-55 ; portrait of, 54, 81-82. 



Reconstruction, Act of, 378 ; the problems 
of, 380,381. 

Religion, in the colonies, 153; and the 
Ordinance of 1787, 294 ; denominations 
in 1900, 574. 

Representation, demanded by colonies, 
204-205 ; of slaves, 300. 

Representative government, first in Amer- 
ica, 85-86. 

Representatives, House of, of the United 
States, established, 299. 

Republican Party, formation of, 355 ; in 
election of 1868, 379. 

Resumption of specie payments, 392. 

Revenue, internal, 312. 

Revere, Paul, 233. 

Revolution, English, 150 ; American, 
causes of, 212 ; the war of the, 232-273 ; 
causes of success of the, 272-273. 

Ribault, Jean, French explorer, founds 
Huguenot colony iu Florida, 53, 61. 

Richmond, Va., Confederate capital, 448. 

Right of Petition, 335, 338, 341. 

Right of Search, 325, 326. 

Riots, draft. See Strikes. 

Roanoke Island, settlement on, 55, 81. 

Robinson, John, pastor of the Pilgrims, 93. 

Rochambeau, Count, 268. 

Rockingham, Lord, portrait of, 229, 227. 

Rocky Mountains, explored, 52, 74. 

Rolfe, John, 84. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 407; becomes President, '409 ; 
character of, 409. 

Rosecrans, Gen. W. S., at the battle of 
Stone river, 471 ; in Chattanooga cam- 
paign, 478 ; superseded by Grant, 480. 

Russia, in the Northwest, 330; in the 
Civil War, 373 ; cedes Alaska to United 
States, 379. 

St. Augustine, colony of, 53, 60. 

St. Clair, Gen. Arthur, 249. 

St. Leger, Colonel, 248, 249. 

Salem, Mass., founded, 96; witchcraft 
delusion, 106-107. 

Santa Anna, 436-, defeated by Gen. Scott, 
437, 438-439. 

Santa Fe, founded, 60. 

Santiago de Cuba, 514. 

Saratoga, surrender at, 250. 



INDEX. 



651 



Savannah, Ga., founded, 161-162 ; capture 
of, 259. 

Schenectady, massacre of, 167. 

Science, 570-572. 

Samoa, 281. 

Schools, common, 555, 556. 

Schuyler, Gen. Philip, checks Burgoyne, 
248-249. 

Scotch-Irish, in the West, 160 ; loyalty of, 
200. 

Scott, Dred. See Dred Scott Decision. 

Scott, Gen. Winfield S., candidate for 
Presidency, 354 ; in Mexican War, 435, 
436-440. 

Search, Right of, 325, 326. 

Sea Voyages, dangers of, 27. 

Secession, threats of, 358; ordinance 
passed South Carolina and other 
States, 360 ; placard of, 362. 

Sedition Law. See Alien and Sedition 
Laws. 

Senate, United States, established, 299. 

Separatists, 93, 95, 97. 

" Serapis," defeated by Paul Jones, 270. 

Seven Years' War, 170. 

Seward, William H., in Taylor's cabinet, 
350 ; " higher law" of, S55, 357. 

Seymour, Horatio, candidate for Presi- 
dency, 379. 

" Shannon " and " Chesapeake," battle of, 
423. 

Sharpsburg (or Antietam), battle of, 469. 

Shay's Rebellion, 295. 

Shenandoah, Valley of, in the Civil War, 
486-487. 

Sheridan, Gen. H. P., portrait, 485 ; de- 
feats Early in Virginia, 485-486. 

Sherman, Gen. W. T. , with Grant in the 
West, 455 ; at Vicksburg, 473 ; at 
Chattanooga, 480 ; takes Atlanta, 481 ; 
takes Savannah, 483 ; receives surren- 
der of Johnston, 488. 

Shiloh (or Pittsburg Landing), battle of, 
454-457. 

Shirley, William, governor of Massachu- 
setts, 169. 

Six Nations, 175, 197. 

Slavery, introduced in America, 85 ; in 
industries, 196; in the colonies, 196; 
prohibited by Ordinance of 1787, 294 ; 



in Missouri, 331,332; in Territories, 
348, 350 ; and the War, 380-381 ; outline 
of, 381-386. 

Slaves, in Virginia, 88 ; in South, 185, 196 ; 
representation of, 300 ; under Fugitive 
Slave Law of 1850, 351-352. 

Smith, Capt. John, English adventurer,, 
portrait, 70 ; in Virginia, 70 ; at James- 
town, 82-83, 85. 

Social life, in colonies, 146-147, 159-160, 
186. 

Socialism, 547. 

Sons of Liberty, 207, 208. 

Soto, Hernando de, Spanish explorer, finds 
Mississippi river, 52. 

South, the, and the Missouri Compromise, 
332; and Texas, 346; and Mexican War, 
347 ; and the Compromise of 1850, 350 ; 
and Fugitive Slaves, 351-352 ; and 
Kansas Bill, 355-356 ; threatens seces- 
sion, 358 ; secedes, 360-361 ; population 
in 1860, 368 ; troops withdrawn from, 
395. 

South Carolina, settled, 120; slaves in, 
121, 196; advocates State sovereignty,. 
337 ; nullification in, 337 ; secedes, 360. 

Spain, wealth of, 50 ; decline of, 55-56, 62 ; 
war with, 405, 508-518 ; secures Louisi- 
ana, 324 ; cedes Florida to England, 
179 ; restores Louisiana to France, 
324; and Cuba, 405; cedes Porto Rico 
and Philippine Islands to United 
States, 405, 515. 

Spanish discoveries and claims, 29, 36, 47- 
49, 51-52, 53 ; motives in, 59 ; claims, 
75, and map of, 76. 

Spanish War. See Spain. 

Specie. See Currency. 

Specie Circular, effects of, 340. 

Specie payments, resumption of, 302. 

Spoils system, introduced, 3C6. 

" Squatter Sovereignty," 348 ; in Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill, 355. 

Stamp Act, 203, 206-207; repeal of, 207; 
Congress, 207. 

Standish, Capt. Miles, 95. 

Stanton, Edwin M., 469. 

Stark, Gen. John, at Bennington, 248. 

Star of the West, episode of, 446. 

State Debts. See Debts. 



652 



INDEX. 



States' Rights Doctrine. See State Sov- 
ereignty. 

State Sovereignty, 293, 309, 318, 328, 337. 

Steamboat, invention of, 521, 522. 

Steel manufacture, 529. 

Steuben, Baron von, 227. 

Stone River (or Murfreesborougli), battle 
of, 471. 

Stony Point, taken by Wayne, 260. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, portrait, 354; 
author of " Uncle Tom's Cabin," 354. 

Strikes, 410. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, governor of New 
Netherlands, 113 ; takes New Sweden, 
114 ; surrenders to English, 114. 

Sub-Treasury system, established, 341. 

Suffrage, female or equal, 579, 580. 

Sullivan, Gen. John, in command of 
Northern forces, 244 ; at the Brandy- 
wine, 251. 

Sumner, Charles, portrait of, 580. 

Sumter, Fort, fall of, 3G7, 44G. 

Sumter, Gen. Thomas, 260, 268. 

Supreme Court of the United States, 
organized, 300 ; power of, 300-301 ; in 
Dred Scott Decision, 356-357 ; on in- 
come tax, 401. 

Swedish Settlements, in Delaware, 69; 
taken by Dutch, 113. 

Taft, William H., Governor of Philippine 
Islands, 409. 

Tariff, first protective, 310 ; Act of 1824, 
332 ; Act of 1828, 334; of 1832, 337 ; of 
1833, 337 ; McKinley, 400 ; Wilson, 401 ; 
Dingley, 405. 

Tariff of Abominations. See Tariff of 1828. 

Tarleton, Col. Banastre, at battle of 
Cowpens, 265-266. 

Taxation, English view of , 204-205; colo- 
nial view of, 204-205 ; resisted by the 
colonists, 206-207 ; on tea, 207-209. 

Taylor, Gen. Zachary, portrait, 349; 
elected President, 349 ; dies, 350 ; in 
Mexican War, 432, 433-436. 

Tea, tax on, 207-209. 

Tecumseh, 327, 429-130. 

Telegraph, invention of, 536. 

Temperance movement, 573. 

Tennessee, settled, 188; secedes, 361. 

Territorial expansion, 278-282. 



1903, 287-288; slavery in, 



Territories, 
348. 

Texas, 279; secedes from Mexico, 340; 
annexed to United States, 346 ; secedes, 
361. 

Thomas, Gen. George H. , atChickamauga, 
479 ; at Nashville, 483. 

Ticonderoga, Fort, taken by English, 
177 ; taken by Ethan Allen, 235. 

Tilden, Samuel J., candidate for Presi- 
dency, 393 ; portrait, 394. 

Tobacco, in Virginia, 84, 196. 

Toombs, Robert, portrait, and views on 
Fort Sumter attack, 447. 

Tories, in the Revolutionary War, 201, 
203, 209, 211, 219 ; persecution of, 219, 
221-222; number of, in 1776, 225, 267, 
268. 

Toscanelli, map by, 26. 

Townshend Acts, 207 ; partially repealed, 
207, 209. 

Trade, in the colonies, 153-154, 171, 195. 

Treasury, Independent, established, 341. 

Treaty of Ryswick, 167 ; of Utrecht, 169; 
of Paris, 179, 271 ; claims under, 278- 
279, 292 ; with England, 314-315 ; at 
Ghent, 328, 429; Webster negotiates 
treaty. 343 ; with Spain, 315-316. 

Trent Affair, 370-371. 

Trenton, battle of, 244. 

Trusts, 54!. 

Tryon, Tory governor of New York, 260. 

"Tweed Ring," 392. 

Tyler, John, portrait of, 343; becomes 
President, 343; his administration, 
343. 

" Uncle Tom's Cabin," published, 354. 

Underground Railway, 352. 

Union Pacific Railway, 386-387. 

United States Bank. See Bank. 

United States, lost to England, 78, 269- 
271 ; condition in 1865, 376. 

Vaca, Cabezade, Spanish explorer, 51. 

Valley Forge, Washington at, 253. 

Van Buren, Martin, portrait of, 341; 
elected President, 341 ; introduces the 
Independent Treasury system, 341. 

Venice, sea-captain of, 34 ; trade-routes, 
map of, 41. 

Venezuelan dispute, 403. 



INDEX. 



653 



Vera Cruz, Cortez at, 48 ; battle of, 437. 

Verrazano, Giovanni de, Italian explorer, 
50. 

Vespucci, Amerigo (Latin form, Americus 
Vespucius), Italian explorer, 35 ; por- 
trait of, 35 ; travels of, 35-36 ; his name 
given to the " New World," 35-36. 

Vicksburg, siege of, and surrender of, 
473-475. 

Vincennes, founded, 166 ; taken by Gen. 
Clark, 259. 

Vikings, voyages of, 31, 38, 39. 

Vinland, voyage to, 38 ; picture of, 38. 

Virginia, origin of name of, 54 ; founded, 
70, 82 ; slavery introduced, 85 ; gover- 
nors of, 83-86, 88 ; Burgesses, 85, 86 ; 
88 ; royal province, 86 ; under Berkeley, 
86, 88-89 ; population of, in 1760, 190 ; 
slaves in, 196 ; resists taxation, 206 ; 
secedes, 361. 

Virginia Resolutions, 318. 

Walseemuller, Martin, gives America its 
name, 35, 36. 

War with Spain, 508-518. 

War of Secession, 444-507 ; summary by 
years, 493-507. 

Wars of the United States, 415-518. 

War of the Revolution, 232-273, 292. 

War of 1812, declared, 327-328 ; naval ex- 
ploits in, 328, 419-429. 

Ward, Nathaniel, framer of the Body of 
Liberties of Mass., 101. 

Washington, George, carries message to 
French, 171-172 ; at Fort Necessity, 
172 ; aide to General Braddock, 173 ; ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief, 217-218 ; 
portrait of, 220; organizes the army 
238 ; difficulties with, 238 ; besieges Bos- 
ton, 238 ; in New York, 240-242 ; in New 
Jersey, 242 ; at Trenton, 244 ; at Prince- 
ton, 245-246 ; at the Brandy wine, 251 ; 
at Germantown, 252 ; at Valley Forge, 
253, 254 ; at Monmouth, 255, 256 ; his 
plans against Cornwallis, 268-269; 
elected President, 307 ; as a statesman, 
307, 314, 315, 317 ; cabinet of, 309, 310 ; 
leans to Federalism, 313-314 ; retire- 
ment, 316. 



Washington, D.C., capital of the United 
States, 311-312 ; taken and burned by 
British, 426. 

Watling's Island, landing-place of Co- 
lumbus, 45. 

Wayne, Gen. Anthony, takes Stony Point, 
261 ; defeats Indians in the Northwest, 
316. 

Wealth, national, 543-544. 

Webster, Daniel, in Congress, 327 ; opposes 
Tariff of 1816, 329, and Tariff of 1824, 
332 ; debate with Hayne, 337 ; in Tyler's 
cabinet, 343; secures Ashburton treaty, 
343 ; in Fillmore's cabinet, 350 ; his 7th 
of March speech, 351 ; portrait, 351. 

West, settlements, of, 187-189. 

West Indies, discovered by Columbus, 29 ; 
trade with, in 1794, 315. 

West Point Military Academy , established, 
442. 

West Virginia, secedes from Virginia and 
remains in Union, 449. 

Whig Party, first President elected by 
342 ; principles of, 342-343 ; and Tyler, 
343; and Clayton, 346; elects Taylor, 
349 ; decline of, 354-355. 

Whitney, Eli, invents cotton-gin, 520. 

"Wild-cat banks," 339-340. 

Williams, Roger, driven from Salem, 99- 
100 ; founds Providence, 100. 

Wilmot Proviso, 348. 

Wilson Tariff Law, 401. 

Winslow, Capt. John A., defeats the 
" Alabama," 489. 

Winthrop, John, first governor of Massa- 
chusetts, 97. 

Witchcraft delusion, 106-107. 

Wolfe, General James, captures Quebec, 
177-179. 

Wyoming Valley massacre, 259. 

Women, in Virginia, 84. 

Yancey, William L., leader of Southern 
Democrats, 358 ; portrait of, 359. 

Yorktown campaign, 2C8-269 ; in the Civil 
War, 465-467. 

Yorktown, surrender of Cornwallis at, 
269. 

X. Y. Z. affair. 318. 



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